JAPANESE GRAMMAR

MASTER JAPANESE GRAMMAR

We made Japanese grammar easy to learn! This Grammar Section is designed to help you understand the essential rules as quickly as possible, so you can begin forming your own sentences from day one. Unlike other courses that overwhelm you with theory, our approach focuses on the most important rules that will allow you to speak Japanese confidently and naturally — starting today.

In the lessons ahead, you’ll find everything you need to master Japanese grammar. Each topic is explained with practical, easy-to-understand examples to help you not only learn the rules but also remember and apply them. We recommend learning the core 2000 Japanese Vocabulary words first — this will make the examples much easier to follow and understand.

The grammar topics covered include the Japanese alphabet, nouns, pronouns, conjunctions and particles. You’ll also dive into adverbs, adjectives, present, past and future tenses, as well as the imperative, modal verbs, negation, sentence structure, questions, and relative clauses.

Click on any section title to jump directly to the topic you're interested in, or start from the beginning and let your knowledge grow naturally.

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Japanese Pronunciation

Japanese pronunciation is friendly once you know how it works: it’s mora-timed (rhythm based on equal “beats”), it has five clear vowels, a compact set of consonants, and predictable rules for long vowels and doubled consonants. The main new concept for English speakers is pitch accent (a melody pattern across a word), plus a few special sounds like the tapped r and the devoicing of /i/ and /u/ in certain positions. This page gives you the essentials, with clear examples in Hepburn romanization.

Mora and Rhythm (Not Syllables)

Japanese flows in morae—tiny timing units—rather than English-style syllables. Each mora takes roughly the same time. Long vowels, doubled consonants, and the nasal ん (n) each add an extra mora.

• がっこう (gakkō) school → ga | Q | ko | ̄ → 4 mora

• おばあさん (obāsan) grandmother → o | ba | ̄ | sa | n → 5 mora

• にっぽん (Nippon) Japan → ni | Q | po | n → 4 mora

Keeping a steady beat helps: clap once per mora when you practice.

The Five Vowels

Japanese has five vowels with stable, pure qualities: a i u e o. They do not diphthongize like many English vowels.

• あさ (asa) morning

• いい (ii) good

• うみ (umi) sea

• えき (eki) station

• おと (oto) sound

Long Vowels (Vowel Length Matters)

A long vowel is held for two morae and can change meaning.

• おばさん (obasan) aunt vs おばあさん (obāsan) grandmother

• こうえん (kōen) park vs こえん (koen) five yen

• ゆうめい (yūmei) famous

In kana, long vowels appear as sequences like おう / おお (for ō) and うう/ゆう/おう (for ū), or with ー in katakana:

• スーパー (sūpā) supermarket

• コンピューター (konpyūtā) computer

“ei” Often Sounds Like Long “ē”

Many speakers realize えい as a long e sound:

• せんせい (sensei) teacher ≈ “sensee”

• れい (rei) example ≈ “rē”

Consonants and Special Articulations

Most Japanese consonants are straightforward, but note a few that differ from English.

The Tapped R

Japanese ら り る れ ろ are a quick tap/flap, not an English r or l.

• りんご (ringo) apple

• からて (karate) karate

• はる (haru) spring

Tip: touch your tongue briefly to the alveolar ridge (like a very fast d).

The “F” in ふ Is Bilabial

ふ is produced with both lips slightly apart ([ɸ]), not with the lower lip and teeth.

• ふじさん (Fujisan) Mount Fuji

• ふく (fuku) clothes

Affricates and “Tsu”

Affricates are common: ち (chi), つ (tsu), し (shi).

• つなみ (tsunami) tsunami

• ちず (chizu) map

• しゃしん (shashin) photo

Palatalized Consonants (Yōon)

Small ゃ ゅ ょ create kya, kyu, kyo–type sounds.

• きゃく (kyaku) guest

• りゅうがくせい (ryūgakusei) international student

• じゅぎょう (jugyō) class

• びょういん (byōin) hospital

“G” Pronunciation

Modern standard Tokyo generally uses [g] word-internally, though you may hear a softer nasal-like [ŋ] in some speakers. Either is widely understood.

• えいご (eigo) English

• かがく (kagaku) science

Doubled Consonants (Gemination) and Small っ (Sokuon)

A small っ marks a pause that doubles the following consonant—count it as a separate mora.

• きって (kitte) stamp

• ざっし (zasshi) magazine

• がっこう (gakkō) school

Hold a tiny stop between the parts: kit-te, zas-shi, gak-kō. Timing matters for meaning.

The Nasal ん (N)

The moraic nasal ん adapts to the next sound:

• Before b/p/m → [m]: しんぶん (shinbun) newspaper

• Before k/g → [ŋ]: まんが (manga) manga

• Before s/t/d → [n]: てんぷら (tenpura) tempura

• Word-final → a nasalized sound: あん (an) red bean paste

Keep it short: it occupies exactly one mora.

Devoicing of /i/ and /u/

When /i/ or /u/ sits between voiceless consonants (like s, k, t, h) or at the end after a voiceless consonant, it may be whispered or nearly silent in natural speech.

• すきです (suki desu) I like it

• した (shita) below

• きく (kiku) to listen

• です (desu) to be (polite)

Don’t delete the vowel completely—keep the rhythm and timing of the mora.

Particles with Historical Spellings

Some particles are written one way but pronounced another:

• Topic は → pronounced wa: 私は学生です。 (watashi wa gakusei desu.) I am a student.

• Direction へ → pronounced e: 学校へ行きます。 (gakkō e ikimasu.) I go to school.

• Object を → pronounced o: 水をください。 (mizu o kudasai.) Water, please.

These are standard and must be learned as set forms.

Pitch Accent (Word Melody)

Unlike English stress accent, Japanese marks words with a pattern of high (H) and low (L) pitch. In Tokyo Japanese, key patterns include:

• Heiban (flat): pitch rises after the first mora and stays high; no drop within the word.

• Atamadaka (head-high): first mora high, then drops.

• Nakadaka (middle-high): rises, then drops somewhere in the middle.

• Odaka (tail-high): rises and drops after an added particle.

Minimal differences can change meaning:

• あめ (ame) rain vs あめ (ame) candy

• はし (hashi) chopsticks vs はし (hashi) bridge

Context usually clarifies, and sentence particles can shift the final pitch. Listen for the drop point; it’s the key to distinguishing pairs.

Rendaku (Sequential Voicing in Compounds)

In many two-part compounds, the first consonant of the second word voices (k→g, s→z, t→d, h→b/p). It’s common but not automatic; lexical rules and exceptions exist.

• て + かみ → てがみ (tegami) letter

• うで + とけい → うでどけい (udedokei) wristwatch

• やま + かわ → やまがわ (Yamagawa) mountain + river (place name)

Learn compounds as vocabulary items; rendaku patterns will feel natural with exposure.

Loanwords and the Long Vowel Mark (ー)

Katakana loanwords often use ー to mark long vowels and insert vowels to fit Japanese phonotactics.

• メール (mēru) email

• タクシー (takushī) taxi

• ゲーム (gēmu) game

• アイスクリーム (aisukurīmu) ice cream

Consonant clusters are usually broken up with vowels: strike → ストライク (sutoraiku).

Common Pronunciation Pitfalls for English Speakers

• Mixing L/R: Aim for a quick tap for r; avoid English r coloring.

  • ラーメン (rāmen) ramen

• Losing mora timing: Keep long vowels and doubled consonants distinct.

  • おじさん (ojisan) uncle vs おじいさん (ojīsan) grandfather

  • さかて (sakate) (nonsense) vs さっか (sakka) author

• Over-pronouncing devoiced vowels: Whisper them lightly to keep rhythm.

  • です (desu) to be (polite)

• Confusing “ji/zi” and “zu/dzu”: Modern pronunciation often merges じ/ぢ and ず/づ, but spelling differs.

  • じしょ (jisho) dictionary

  • つづく (tsuzuku) to continue

Sentence-Level Melody and Intonation

Pitch accent lives inside words, but sentences have their own music:

• Yes/no questions often end with a gentle rise, especially with か.

  • 行きますか。 (ikimasu ka.) Are you going?

• ね seeks agreement/softens tone; よ asserts new info.

  • きれいですね。 (kirei desu ne.) It’s pretty, isn’t it?

  • 本当ですよ。 (hontō desu yo.) It’s true, you know.

The final particle can subtly change the feel even when the grammar is the same.

Practical Drills to Build Native-like Sound

1. Mora Clapping: Clap each mora for words with long vowels and sokuon.

   • がっこう (gakkō) school

   • ゆうめい (yūmei) famous

2. Minimal Pairs: Practice contrasts that change meaning.

   • おばさん (obasan) aunt / おばあさん (obāsan) grandmother

   • あめ (ame) rain / あめ (ame) candy

   • きて (kite) come! / きって (kitte) stamp

3. Shadowing: Echo native audio a half-second behind, copying timing and pitch.

   • 今日はいい天気ですね。 (kyō wa ii tenki desu ne.) It’s nice weather today, isn’t it?

4. Particle Focus: Read short sentences emphasizing particle pronunciation.

   • 私は学生です。 (watashi wa gakusei desu.) I am a student.

   • 駅へ行きます。 (eki e ikimasu.) I go to the station.

   • 水を飲みます。 (mizu o nomimasu.) I drink water.

5. Pitch Accent Listening: When you learn a new word, say it while marking where the pitch drops. Collect pairs like はし (hashi) chopsticks/bridge and repeat them in short phrases.

Putting It All Together: Model Sentences

• 日本語は面白いです。 (Nihongo wa omoshiroi desu.) Japanese is interesting.

• 先生は東京にいます。 (sensei wa Tōkyō ni imasu.) The teacher is in Tokyo.

• きっぷを二枚ください。 (kippu o nimai kudasai.) Two tickets, please.

• 病院はあそこです。 (byōin wa asoko desu.) The hospital is over there.

• 写真を見せてください。 (shashin o misete kudasai.) Please show me the photo.

Note the timing: kippu has a sokuon (っ) and counts as three mora (ki | Q | pu), byōin has a long vowel (byō | in).

Regional Accents (Brief Orientation)

The standard taught internationally is Tokyo-type pitch accent. Other regions (e.g., Kansai) use different patterns and intonation. Everything on this page still applies, but melody may shift:

• ありがとう (arigatō) thank you shows different pitch patterns in Tokyo vs. Osaka. Exposure to both only strengthens your ear.

Japanese Nouns

Nouns in Japanese: A Complete, Practical Guide

Japanese nouns are wonderfully simple in some ways—no grammatical gender, no article system, and no mandatory plural ending—yet they interact richly with particles, counters, and modifiers. This page walks you through how nouns work, how they combine with other elements, and the patterns you’ll use every day.

What Counts as a Noun in Japanese

Japanese nouns include concrete things, abstract ideas, names, places, times, and verbal nouns (items that can pair with する to make verbs). Unlike many European languages, nouns do not change their form for number or case; particles after the noun show its function.

• 本 (hon) book

• 自由 (jiyū) freedom

• 東京 (Tōkyō) Tokyo

• 昨日 (kinō) yesterday

• 勉強 (benkyō) study

No Grammatical Gender, No Articles

Japanese has no equivalent of “a/an/the,” and nouns have no gender. Definiteness and specificity come from context, demonstratives, or modifiers.

• 本を読みます。 (hon o yomimasu.) I read a book / the book (context decides).

• その本を読みます。 (sono hon o yomimasu.) I read that book.

Number and Plurality

By default, a noun can mean singular or plural; context, numbers, and counters clarify. Several strategies indicate plurality or collectivity when needed:

• 学生 (gakusei) student / students

• 学生たち (gakusei-tachi) students (group)

• 人々 (hitobito) people (collective)

• 子どもら (kodomora) kids (colloquial group feel)

Use group markers like 〜たち, 〜ら, and the iteration mark 々 sparingly and mainly for humans or animate groups.

• 学生たちが来ました。 (gakusei-tachi ga kimashita.) The students came.

Demonstratives with Nouns

Japanese uses a ko–so–a–do system:

• これ / それ / あれ / どれ → “this/that/that over there/which (one)”

• この / その / あの / どの + noun → “this/that/that over there/which (noun)”

• ここ / そこ / あそこ / どこ → “here/there/over there/where”

Examples:

• これは本です。 (kore wa hon desu.) This is a book.

• その本は面白いです。 (sono hon wa omoshiroi desu.) That book is interesting.

• あの店は有名です。 (ano mise wa yūmei desu.) That shop (over there) is famous.

• どの映画が好きですか。 (dono eiga ga suki desu ka.) Which movie do you like?

Possession and “Of” with の

The particle の links nouns. It broadly corresponds to English “of” or a possessive “’s,” but it also marks classification and attribution.

• 田中さんの本 (Tanaka-san no hon) Tanaka’s book

• 日本の映画 (Nihon no eiga) Japanese film

• 数学の先生 (sūgaku no sensei) math teacher (teacher of math)

Chains are possible when reading left-to-right from broad to specific:

• 東京大学の医学部の学生 (Tōkyō Daigaku no igakubu no gakusei) a student of the medical faculty at the University of Tokyo.

Noun + Noun Compounds vs の

Japanese forms compounds both with の and with direct compounding (no particle). The nuance varies:

• 日本語の先生 (Nihongo no sensei) teacher of Japanese (descriptive)

• 日本語教師 (Nihongo kyōshi) Japanese-language teacher (lexicalized job title)

Learn common compounds as vocabulary; some take の, others do not.

Case and Role: Particles After Nouns

Particles follow nouns to show their function in the sentence.

• は (topic): 私は学生です。 (watashi wa gakusei desu.) As for me, I am a student.

• が (subject/new info): 猫がいます。 (neko ga imasu.) There is a cat.

• を (direct object): 本を読みます。 (hon o yomimasu.) I read a book.

• に (goal/time/indirect obj): 学校に行きます。 (gakkō ni ikimasu.) I go to school.

• へ (direction): 東京へ行きます。 (Tōkyō e ikimasu.) I’m heading to Tokyo.

• で (location of action/means): 図書館で勉強します。 (toshokan de benkyō shimasu.) I study at the library.

• と (with/and exact list): 友達と話します。 (tomodachi to hanashimasu.) I talk with a friend.

• から / まで (from / until): 九時から十時まで (kuji kara jūji made) from 9 to 10.

• や / とか (non-exhaustive “and”): 本や雑誌 (hon ya zasshi) books, magazines, etc.

Location and Relational Nouns

Words like 上 / 中 / 下 / 前 / 後ろ / 横 / 外 / 中 behave as nouns and attach via の:

• 机の上 (tsukue no ue) on the desk

• 家の前 (ie no mae) in front of the house

• 学校の近く (gakkō no chikaku) near the school

Example sentence:

• 本は机の上にあります。 (hon wa tsukue no ue ni arimasu.) The book is on the desk.

Quantities, Numerals, and Counters

Instead of plural endings, Japanese uses counters after numbers. Two common patterns:

1. number + counter + の + noun

2. noun + が/を + number + counter

• 三本のペン (san-bon no pen) three pens / ペンが三本あります。 (pen ga san-bon arimasu.) There are three pens.

• 二人の学生 (futari no gakusei) two students / 学生が二人来ました。 (gakusei ga futari kimashita.) Two students came.

Typical counters and pronunciation shifts (Hepburn):

• 人 (nin; 1=ひとり hitori, 2=ふたり futari; 3=さんにん sannin, etc.)

• 本 (hon for long objects; いっぽん ippon, さんぼん sanbon, ろっぽん roppon, はっぽん happon, じゅっぽん juppon)

• 枚 (mai for flat objects)

• 匹 (hiki for small animals; いっぴき ippiki, さんびき sanbiki, ろっぴき roppiki, はっぴき happiki, じゅっぴき juppiki)

• 台 (dai for machines/vehicles)

• 冊 (satsu for bound volumes; いっさつ issatsu, はっさつ hassatsu, じゅっさつ jussatsu)

Quantifiers often use の:

• たくさんの人 (takusan no hito) many people

• 少しの水 (sukoshi no mizu) a little water

Pronouns Behave Like Nouns (But Choose Carefully)

Japanese first- and second-person “pronouns” are nouns with strong social coloring. Use names and titles when possible, especially in polite settings.

• 私 (watashi) I (polite/neutral)

• 僕 (boku) I (casual, typically male)

• 俺 (ore) I (very casual, masculine)

• あなた (anata) you (avoid in direct address when a name/title works)

Examples:

• 私は田中です。 (watashi wa Tanaka desu.) I am Tanaka.

• 先生はどちらですか。 (sensei wa dochira desu ka.) Which one is the teacher?

Plural-like forms: 私たち (watashi-tachi) we, 彼ら (karera) they. Use these thoughtfully to avoid overgeneralizing.

Titles and Address After Names

Add respectful suffixes after proper nouns:

• 田中さん (Tanaka-san) Mr./Ms. Tanaka

• 山本先生 (Yamamoto-sensei) Professor/Teacher Yamamoto

• 佐藤様 (Satō-sama) Mr./Ms. Satō (very polite)

• 太郎くん / 花子ちゃん (Tarō-kun / Hanako-chan) friendly/familiar address

Honorific Prefixes with Nouns: お / ご

Polite prefixes attach to many everyday or culturally valued items. お generally with native Japanese words, ご generally with Sino-Japanese, though there are set exceptions.

• お茶 (o-cha) tea

• お金 (o-kane) money

• ご飯 (go-han) cooked rice/meal

• ご家族 (go-kazoku) your family (respectful)

These add politeness; they don’t change the core meaning.

Nominalization: Turning Phrases into Nouns

Two common nominalizers are の and こと.

• 彼が来るの (kare ga kuru no) the fact that he is coming / his coming

• 日本語を勉強すること (Nihongo o benkyō suru koto) studying Japanese (as a concept)

Nuance: の often sounds more concrete or speaker-centered; こと can sound more abstract, formal, or rule-like.

• 走るのが好きです。 (hashiru no ga suki desu.) I like running.

• 早寝することは大切です。 (haya-ne suru koto wa taisetsu desu.) Going to bed early is important.

Nouns Modified by Adjectives and Clauses

Adjectives and entire verb clauses sit before the noun they modify; there is no relative pronoun like “that” or “which.”

• 大きい家 (ōkii ie) a big house

• 静かな町 (shizuka na machi) a quiet town

• 昨日買った本 (kinō katta hon) the book (I) bought yesterday

• 日本で撮った写真 (Nihon de totta shashin) photos taken in Japan

Full sentence example:

• 昨日買った本は面白いです。 (kinō katta hon wa omoshiroi desu.) The book I bought yesterday is interesting.

Copula with Nouns: だ / です

Equational sentences use the copula. Polite です, plain だ. Negative and past forms are regular patterns you’ll use often.

• これは辞書です。 (kore wa jisho desu.) This is a dictionary.

• 彼は医者だ。 (kare wa isha da.) He is a doctor.

• 映画は有名ではありません。 (eiga wa yūmei de wa arimasen.) The movie is not famous.

• それは本じゃない。 (sore wa hon ja nai.) That is not a book.

• 昨日は休みでした。 (kinō wa yasumi deshita.) Yesterday was a day off.

• 雨だった。 (ame datta.) It was rainy.

Topic は vs. Subject が with Nouns

Both は and が can follow nouns, but they highlight different things:

• は sets or contrasts the topic (what we’re talking about).

• が marks the grammatical subject, often introducing new information or focusing on who/what fulfills the predicate.

Compare:

• 猫は好きです。 (neko wa suki desu.) As for cats, (I) like them.

• 猫が好きです。 (neko ga suki desu.) I like cats (cats are what I like).

Listing Nouns: Exact vs. Inexact

Use と for exact, closed lists; や and とか for open-ended lists.

• りんごとバナナとみかん (ringo to banana to mikan) apples, bananas, and mandarins (exact list)

• 本や雑誌や新聞 (hon ya zasshi ya shinbun) books, magazines, newspapers (among others)

• ケーキとかクッキー (kēki toka kukkī) cake, cookies, and things like that

Verbal Nouns (サ変名詞) and の with Nouns

Many Sino-Japanese nouns pair with する to form verbs; as nouns they behave normally (take の, counters, etc.).

• 勉強する (benkyō suru) to study / 日本語の勉強 (Nihongo no benkyō) study of Japanese

• 運動する (undō suru) to exercise / 毎日の運動 (mainichi no undō) daily exercise

Time and Frequency Nouns

Time words are nouns that take particles and modifiers:

• 明日 (ashita) tomorrow → 明日に出発します。 (ashita ni shuppatsu shimasu.) I depart tomorrow.

• 毎日 (mainichi) every day → 毎日日本語を勉強します。 (mainichi Nihongo o benkyō shimasu.) I study Japanese every day.

• 三回 (sankai) three times → 一年に三回行きます。 (ichinen ni sankai ikimasu.) I go three times a year.

Fixed Expressions with Nouns

You’ll meet set phrases where nouns and particles create idiomatic meanings:

• 〜中 (chū) during / in the middle of: 会議中 (kaigi-chū) in a meeting

• 〜前 / 〜後 (mae/ato) before/after: 出発前 (shuppatsu-mae) before departure

• 〜的 (teki) -like / -al: 文化的 (bunka-teki) cultural

Putting It Together: Natural Example Sentences

• 日本の映画が好きです。

  (Nihon no eiga ga suki desu.)

  I like Japanese movies.

• 田中さんの家は駅の近くです。

  (Tanaka-san no ie wa eki no chikaku desu.)

  Mr./Ms. Tanaka’s house is near the station.

• 机の上に本が三冊あります。

  (tsukue no ue ni hon ga san-satsu arimasu.)

  There are three books on the desk.

• 有名な作家の小説を読みます。

  (yūmei na sakka no shōsetsu o yomimasu.)

  I read a novel by a famous author.

• 明日は友達と美術館へ行きます。

  (ashita wa tomodachi to bijutsukan e ikimasu.)

  Tomorrow I’m going to the museum with a friend.

• 新しい先生は日本語の発音の専門家です。

  (atarashii sensei wa Nihongo no hatsuon no senmonka desu.)

  The new teacher is a specialist in Japanese pronunciation.

• その写真は日本で撮った写真です。

  (sono shashin wa Nihon de totta shashin desu.)

  That photo is a photo taken in Japan.

Japanese Particles

Particles are short, unstressed elements that attach to words and show function, relation, and nuance. Instead of changing the form of nouns (no case endings), Japanese uses particles to mark topic, subject, object, place, time, direction, comparison, listing, reason, emphasis, and sentence attitude. Mastering particles makes your sentences precise and natural.

Orthography vs. Pronunciation (は・へ・を)

Some particles are written historically but pronounced differently:

• は is pronounced wa when it is the topic marker.
  私は学生です。 (watashi wa gakusei desu.) As for me, I am a student.

• へ is pronounced e when it marks direction.
  東京へ行きます。 (Tōkyō e ikimasu.) I’m heading to Tokyo.

• を is pronounced o as the direct-object marker.
  本を読みます。 (hon o yomimasu.) I read a book.

These pronunciations are standard and must be learned as fixed forms.

Topic は vs. Subject が

は sets the topic (what we’re talking about), often known or contrastive; が marks the subject, introducing or focusing on who/what fulfills the verb.

• 猫は魚を食べます。 (neko wa sakana o tabemasu.) As for cats, they eat fish.

• 猫が魚を食べます。 (neko ga sakana o tabemasu.) It is the cat that eats fish.

Contrastive は highlights a switch or opposition:

• 私は行きますが、兄は行きません。 (watashi wa ikimasu ga, ani wa ikimasen.) I’m going, but my older brother isn’t.

In relative/subordinate clauses, が commonly marks the subject:

• 私が昨日見た映画 (watashi ga kinō mita eiga) the movie that I saw yesterday

• 友達が作ったケーキ (tomodachi ga tsukutta kēki) the cake my friend made

Direct Object を

を marks the direct object of transitive verbs.

• 音楽を聞きます。 (ongaku o kikimasu.) I listen to music.

• コーヒーを飲みます。 (kōhī o nomimasu.) I drink coffee.

In casual speech, the object (and even を) is often dropped when context is clear:

• （コーヒーを）飲む？ ( (kōhī o) nomu?) Drink (coffee)?

Location and Time: に vs. で

に points to a target (existence, arrival, time), while で marks the place of an action or the means.

• Existence/arrival:
  机の上に本があります。 (tsukue no ue ni hon ga arimasu.) There is a book on the desk.
  駅に着きました。 (eki ni tsukimashita.) I arrived at the station.

• Action location:
  図書館で勉強します。 (toshokan de benkyō shimasu.) I study at the library.

• Time point (specific):
  三時に会いましょう。 (sanji ni aimashō.) Let’s meet at three.

• Means/instrument:
  電車で行きます。 (densha de ikimasu.) I go by train.

Direction: に vs. へ

Both mark direction; へ highlights the path/heading, に is more goal-specific and is also used for recipients.

• 学校へ歩いて行きます。 (gakkō e aruite ikimasu.) I walk toward school.

• 学校に行きます。 (gakkō ni ikimasu.) I go to school.

• 友達に手紙を送ります。 (tomodachi ni tegami o okurimasu.) I send a letter to a friend.

With/And and Quotation: と

と joins nouns in an exact list, marks companionship (“with”), and marks quotations (direct/indirect).

• Exact list:
  りんごとバナナとみかんを買いました。 (ringo to banana to mikan o kaimashita.) I bought apples, bananas, and mandarins.

• Companionship:
  友達と映画を見ます。 (tomodachi to eiga o mimasu.) I watch a movie with a friend.

• Quotation (think/say):
  「行く」と言いました。 (“iku” to iimashita.) I said “I’m going.”
  明日行くと思います。 (ashita iku to omoimasu.) I think (that) I’ll go tomorrow.

Non-Exhaustive Listing: や・とか・など

These downplay completeness or soften the tone.

• や (…and such):
  本や雑誌を読みます。 (hon ya zasshi o yomimasu.) I read books and magazines (among others).

• とか (…or like…/for example):
  映画とか音楽とかが好きです。 (eiga toka ongaku toka ga suki desu.) I like things like movies and music.

• など (etc.; downtoning):
  寿司などを食べました。 (sushi nado o tabemashita.) I ate sushi and the like.

Inclusion and Emphasis: も・こそ・でも

• も means “also/even”; after interrogatives it forms indefinites with context.
  私も行きます。 (watashi mo ikimasu.) I’m going too.
  今日も雨です。 (kyō mo ame desu.) It’s rainy again today.

• こそ adds emphatic focus (“this/that precisely”).
  あなたこそ先生です。 (anata koso sensei desu.) You are the teacher (you of all people).

• でも can mean “even,” or “or something” in suggestions.
  子どもでも分かります。 (kodomo demo wakarimasu.) Even a child can understand.
  コーヒーでも飲みませんか。 (kōhī demo nomimasen ka.) How about coffee or something?

Limits and Extent: だけ・しか・ばかり・くらい/ぐらい・ほど

• だけ “only/just” (neutral; works with any polarity).
  一枚だけあります。 (ichimai dake arimasu.) There’s only one sheet.

• しか “nothing but”—must pair with a negative predicate.
  一枚しかありません。 (ichimai shika arimasen.) There is nothing but one sheet.

• ばかり “nothing but/approximately a lot of” (subjective excess).
  甘い物ばかり食べます。 (amai mono bakari tabemasu.) I eat nothing but sweets.

• くらい/ぐらい “about/approximately; to the extent that.”
  一時間くらい待ちました。 (ichijikan kurai machimashita.) I waited about an hour.
  死ぬくらい疲れた。 (shinu kurai tsukareta.) I’m exhausted to death (hyperbole).

• ほど “to the degree/extent; (neg) not particularly.”
  想像したほど難しくない。 (sōzō shita hodo muzukashikunai.) Not as hard as I imagined.

From/Until and Deadlines: から・まで・までに

• から “from/since,” まで “until/up to.”
  九時から五時まで働きます。 (kuji kara goji made hatarakimasu.) I work from 9 to 5.

• までに “by (deadline).”
  金曜日までに提出してください。 (kin’yōbi made ni teishutsu shite kudasai.) Please submit by Friday.

• “Even” sense of まで (surprising scope):
  子どもまで来ました。 (kodomo made kimashita.) Even children came.

Comparison and Benchmarks: より・ほど

• より marks the baseline (“than”).
  東京は大阪より大きいです。 (Tōkyō wa Ōsaka yori ōkii desu.) Tokyo is bigger than Osaka.

• ほど forms “as … as …” (often negative).
  彼ほど上手ではありません。 (kare hodo jōzu de wa arimasen.) Not as skilled as him.

• Superlative with 一番 (not a particle, but common with より comparisons):
  この店が一番好きです。 (kono mise ga ichiban suki desu.) I like this shop the most.

Possession, Classification, and Nominal Linker: の

の links nouns (possessor, “of,” type/class), creates noun phrases, and nominalizes clauses in some contexts.

• Possession/type:
  田中さんの本 (Tanaka-san no hon) Mr./Ms. Tanaka’s book
  日本の映画 (Nihon no eiga) Japanese films

• Apposition/classification:
  学生の山田さん (gakusei no Yamada-san) Yamada, (who is) a student.

• Clause → noun (see also こと):
  彼が来るのは本当です。 (kare ga kuru no wa hontō desu.) That he is coming is true.

Quasi-Topic and Quotation in Casual Speech: って

って is colloquial: a relaxed と (quotation) or an informal topic marker (like は).

• Quotation:
  明日行くって言った。 (ashita iku tte itta.) He said he’ll go tomorrow.

• Topic (informal):
  日本語って面白いね。 (Nihongo tte omoshiroi ne.) Japanese— it’s interesting, isn’t it?

Use って in casual contexts; in formal writing, prefer と/は.

Stacking and Focus: には・では・とは など

Particles can stack to refine focus, often after nouns and nominalized clauses.

• には (topic + target/focus):
  日本で働くにはビザが必要です。 (Nihon de hataraku ni wa biza ga hitsuyō desu.) To work in Japan, you need a visa.

• では (topic + setting/contrast):
  ここでは喫煙できません。 (koko de wa kitsuen dekimasen.) You can’t smoke here (at least here).

• とは (definition/quotative topic):
  自由とは責任である。 (jiyū to wa sekinin de aru.) Freedom is responsibility.

These combinations add precision, contrast, or definitional tone.

Compound/Relational Particles: にとって・について・によって・に対して・において・を通じて・をめぐって

Often called compound particles or postpositional phrases, these behave as single units.

• にとって “for/from the standpoint of”:
  私にとって日本語は大切です。 (watashi ni totte Nihongo wa taisetsu desu.) Japanese is important to me.

• について “about/regarding”:
  歴史について話しましょう。 (rekishi ni tsuite hanashimashō.) Let’s talk about history.

• によって “depending on/by means of/caused by”:
  人によって考えが違います。 (hito ni yotte kangae ga chigaimasu.) Views differ depending on the person.
  事故は雨によって起きた。 (jiko wa ame ni yotte okita.) The accident was caused by rain.

• に対して “toward/against/in contrast to”:
  子どもに対して優しい。 (kodomo ni taishite yasashii.) Kind toward children.
  兄に対して、私は静かです。 (ani ni taishite, watashi wa shizuka desu.) In contrast to my brother, I’m quiet.

• において “in/at (formal scene, field, era)”:
  教育において重要です。 (kyōiku ni oite jūyō desu.) It is important in education.

• を通じて／を通して “through/throughout”:
  一年を通じて涼しい。 (ichinen o tsūjite suzushii.) It’s cool throughout the year.

• をめぐって “over/about (dispute/topic)”:
  計画をめぐって議論がある。 (keikaku o megutte giron ga aru.) There’s debate over the plan.

Reason and Explanation: から・ので・って／の (explanatory tone)

• から (reason; often subjective/casual):
  忙しいから行けません。 (isogashii kara ikemasen.) I can’t go because I’m busy.

• ので (reason; softer/formal/objective):
  雨なので中止します。 (ame na no de chūshi shimasu.) It’s raining, so we’ll cancel.

• Explanatory の／ん (sentence-final, often with だ):
  遅れたの。 (okureta no.) I was late (you see).

Sentence-Final Particles: か・ね・よ・よね・かな

These color the attitude of the sentence.

• か (question):
  行きますか。 (ikimasu ka.) Are you going?

• ね (seeking agreement/softening):
  きれいですね。 (kirei desu ne.) It’s pretty, isn’t it?

• よ (assertive/giving info):
  本当ですよ。 (hontō desu yo.) It’s true, you know.

• よね (assertive + agreement-seeking):
  難しいよね。 (muzukashii yo ne.) It’s hard, right.

• かな (self-questioning/wondering):
  間に合うかな。 (mani au kana.) I wonder if I’ll make it in time.

Interrogatives + か／も／でも (Indefinites and Negation)

Attaching particles to question words yields meanings like “someone/anyone/no one,” “somewhere/anywhere/nowhere,” etc.

• だれか “someone”:
  だれか来ました。 (dareka kimashita.) Someone came.

• だれも with negative → “no one”:
  だれも来ませんでした。 (daremo kimasen deshita.) No one came.

• どこでも “anywhere/everywhere” (usually affirmative):
  どこでも行けます。 (dokodemo ikemasu.) I can go anywhere.

• どこも with negative → “nowhere”:
  どこも開いていません。 (dokomo aite imasen.) Nowhere is open.

• いつも usually “always” (affirmative) / “never” (negative):
  いつも忙しいです。 (itsumo isogashii desu.) I’m always busy.
  いつも行きません。 (itsumo ikimasen.) I never go.

• 何でも “anything/everything”:
  何でも食べます。 (nandemo tabemasu.) I eat anything.

• 何も with negative → “nothing”:
  何も知りません。 (nanimo shirimasen.) I don’t know anything.

Particle Dropping (Zero Marking) and Natural Ellipsis

Spoken Japanese often omits particles when context is obvious, especially は, が, を.

• 明日、東京行く。 (ashita, Tōkyō iku.) Tomorrow, (I) go to Tokyo.

• これ、食べる？ (kore, taberu?) Want to eat this?

Use omission only when the meaning remains clear; in careful writing, include particles.

Subtle but Common Pairings and Nuances

• だけで “just by/with only”:
  見るだけで分かります。 (miru dake de wakarimasu.) You can tell just by looking.

• しか〜ない fixed pair “nothing but ~”:
  彼しか知らない。 (kare shika shiranai.) Only he knows.

• については／に関しては (topic-raising about):
  安全については問題ありません。 (anzen ni tsuite wa mondai arimasen.) As for safety, no issues.

• として “as (a role/capacity)”:
  代表として参加します。 (daihyou to shite sanka shimasu.) I’ll participate as a representative.

• からして／からすると (judging from; even…):
  発言からすると彼は詳しい。 (hatsugen kara suru to kare wa kuwashii.) Judging from his remarks, he is knowledgeable.
  見た目からして高そうだ。 (mitame kara shite takasō da.) It looks expensive from the appearance alone.

Practice Sentences Bringing It All Together

• その店では朝七時から朝食を出します。 (sono mise de wa asa shichiji kara chōshoku o dashimasu.) At that shop, they serve breakfast from 7 a.m.

• 日本の歴史について先生と話しました。 (Nihon no rekishi ni tsuite sensei to hanashimashita.) I talked with the teacher about Japanese history.

• 私は映画より本のほうが好きです。 (watashi wa eiga yori hon no hō ga suki desu.) I prefer books to movies.

• 雨なので外では遊びません。 (ame na no de soto de wa asobimasen.) Since it’s raining, we won’t play outside.

• 会議は三時に東京駅で行います。 (kaigi wa sanji ni Tōkyō-eki de okonaimasu.) We’ll hold the meeting at 3 at Tokyo Station.

• 忙しいから今日は無理です。 (isogashii kara kyō wa muri desu.) Because I’m busy, today is impossible.

• この問題に対して意見があります。 (kono mondai ni taishite iken ga arimasu.) I have an opinion regarding this issue.

• 学生にとって時間は大切です。 (gakusei ni totte jikan wa taisetsu desu.) Time is important for students.

• 彼女って優しいよね。 (kanojo tte yasashii yo ne.) She’s really kind, isn’t she.

Japanese Adjectives

Japanese adjectives split into two main types with distinct behaviors: i-adjectives (形容詞) that end in 〜い in their base form, and na-adjectives (形容動詞) that pair with な before a noun and behave like nouns plus the copula in sentences. Both types can modify nouns directly, stand as predicates, and express degree, comparison, and change. Mastering their conjugations and common patterns will make your Japanese precise and natural.

Two Adjective Classes at a Glance

i-adjectives end in 〜い (e.g., 高い), conjugate by changing that ending, and do not take だ.
na-adjectives (e.g., 静か/静かな) act like nouns that need な before a noun, and だ／です when used as predicates.

• 高い本 (takai hon) an expensive book

• 静かな町 (shizuka na machi) a quiet town

• この本は高いです。 (kono hon wa takai desu.) This book is expensive.

• その町は静かです。 (sono machi wa shizuka desu.) That town is quiet.

i-Adjectives: Conjugation and Use

i-adjectives (終止形 ends with 〜い) conjugate by modifying the final 〜い.

• Affirmative (present): 高い (takai) is expensive

• Negative (present): 高くない (takaku nai) is not expensive

• Past (affirmative): 高かった (takakatta) was expensive

• Past (negative): 高くなかった (takaku nakatta) was not expensive

• Polite predicate: add です to the conjugated adjective (you still conjugate the adjective itself)

  • 高いです。 (takai desu.) It’s expensive.

  • 高くないです。 (takaku nai desu.) It’s not expensive.

  • 高くありません。 (takaku arimasen.) It’s not expensive. (more formal)

  • 高かったです。 (takakatta desu.) It was expensive.

  • 高くありませんでした。 (takaku arimasen deshita.) It wasn’t expensive.

Attributive (before a noun) and predicative (sentence-final) forms are the same in the present affirmative:

• 高い車 (takai kuruma) an expensive car

• 車は高いです。 (kuruma wa takai desu.) Cars are expensive.

na-Adjectives: Conjugation and Use

na-adjectives require な before a noun and the copula when used as a predicate. Think of them as adjective-like nouns.

• Attributive: 静かな公園 (shizuka na kōen) a quiet park

• Predicate (plain/polite):

  • 公園は静かだ。 (kōen wa shizuka da.) The park is quiet.

  • 公園は静かです。 (kōen wa shizuka desu.) The park is quiet.

Conjugation happens on the copula, not on the adjective stem:

• Negative (present): 静かではない／静かじゃない (shizuka de wa nai / shizuka ja nai) is not quiet

• Past (affirmative): 静かだった (shizuka datta) was quiet / 静かでした (shizuka deshita)

• Past (negative): 静かではなかった／静かじゃなかった (shizuka de wa nakatta / shizuka ja nakatta) was not quiet

• Connecting (te-form): 静かで (shizuka de) being quiet (and …)

The Irregular Adjective いい (よい)

いい (ii) good is historically よい (yoi), and conjugation uses よ in many forms:

• よくない (yokunai) not good

• よかった (yokatta) was good

• よくなかった (yokunakatta) was not good

• よさそう (yosasō) looks good

• よく (yoku) well (adverb)

• この映画はよかったです。 (kono eiga wa yokatta desu.) This movie was good.

• 天気はよくないです。 (tenki wa yokunai desu.) The weather isn’t good.

Adverbial Use: 〜く and 〜に

Use 〜く to turn i-adjectives into adverbs, and 〜に for na-adjectives.

• 速く走ります。 (hayaku hashirimasu.) I run quickly.

• 静かに話してください。 (shizuka ni hanashite kudasai.) Please speak quietly.

Linking Ideas with Adjectives: 〜くて and 〜で

To chain reasons or add properties:

• i-adjectives: replace 〜い with 〜くて

  • この店は安くて便利です。 (kono mise wa yasukute benri desu.) This shop is cheap and convenient.

• na-adjectives: use 〜で

  • この部屋は広くて静かです。 (kono heya wa hirokute shizuka desu.) This room is spacious and quiet.
    (Note: 広い is i-adj → 広くて; 静か is na-adj → 静かで. In mixed chains, each adjective uses its own connector.)

Degree and Intensifiers

Common degree words: とても (very), すごく (very/informal), かなり (quite), 少し／ちょっと (a little), あまり〜ない (not very), 全然〜ない (not at all).

• この本はとても面白いです。 (kono hon wa totemo omoshiroi desu.) This book is very interesting.

• 今日は少し寒いです。 (kyō wa sukoshi samui desu.) It’s a little cold today.

• この問題は全然難しくないです。 (kono mondai wa zenzen muzukashiku nai desu.) This problem isn’t difficult at all.

• このカフェはかなり静かです。 (kono kafe wa kanari shizuka desu.) This café is quite quiet.

Comparatives and Superlatives with Adjectives

Japanese typically uses より, ほうが, and 一番:

• A は B より 形容詞: A is more … than B.

  • 東京は大阪より大きいです。 (Tōkyō wa Ōsaka yori ōkii desu.) Tokyo is bigger than Osaka.

• A のほうが 形容詞: A is the preferable/more … option.

  • 映画より本のほうが面白いです。 (eiga yori hon no hō ga omoshiroi desu.) Books are more interesting than movies.

• 一番 + 形容詞: the most …

  • この店が一番安いです。 (kono mise ga ichiban yasui desu.) This shop is the cheapest.

For “not as … as …”: B ほど 形容詞くない / 形容動詞ではない

• 大阪は東京ほど大きくないです。 (Ōsaka wa Tōkyō hodo ōkiku nai desu.) Osaka is not as big as Tokyo.

• この部屋は図書館ほど静かではありません。 (kono heya wa toshokan hodo shizuka de wa arimasen.) This room isn’t as quiet as the library.

Change and Result: 〜くなる／〜になる・〜くする／〜にする

Express becoming (なる) and making (する) with 〜く (i-adj) and 〜に (na-adj):

• 暑くなる (atsuku naru) become hot

• きれいになる (kirei ni naru) become clean/pretty

• 部屋を明るくする。 (heya o akaruku suru.) Make the room brighter.

• 部屋を静かにする。 (heya o shizuka ni suru.) Make the room quiet.

• 最近、夜は寒くなりました。 (saikin, yoru wa samuku narimashita.) Recently, nights have become cold.

• 髪を短くしました。 (kami o mijikaku shimashita.) I made my hair short / I got a haircut.

Seeming and Supposition: 〜そうだ・〜らしい・〜ようだ

Three useful endings attach (with rules) to adjective bases:

〜そうだ (appearance “looks/seems”)

• i-adj: drop い → 〜そう

• na-adj: drop な → 〜そう

• いい → よさそう (yosasō)

• このケーキはおいしそうです。 (kono kēki wa oishisō desu.) This cake looks tasty.

• 彼は元気そうです。 (kare wa genki sō desu.) He looks well.

Negative “doesn’t look …”:

• おいしくなさそう (oishiku nasasō) doesn’t look tasty

• 静かじゃなさそう (shizuka ja nasasō) doesn’t seem quiet

〜らしい (hearsay or “typical of”)

• 彼は忙しいらしいです。 (kare wa isogashii rashii desu.) He seems (I hear he is) busy.

• 子どもらしい笑顔 (kodomo rashii egao) a childlike smile.

〜ようだ (resembles/appears—reasoned inference)

• 外は寒いようです。 (soto wa samui yō desu.) It appears cold outside.

• 彼は元気なようです。 (kare wa genki na yō desu.) He seems to be fine.

“Too …” with 〜すぎる

Attach すぎる to the adjective stem (i-adj drop い; na-adj drop な + すぎる) to mean “too …”.

• 辛すぎる (karasugiru) too spicy

• 静かすぎる (shizuka sugiru) too quiet

• この靴は高すぎます。 (kono kutsu wa takasugimasu.) These shoes are too expensive.

Desire 〜たい Is an i-Adjective

Formed from verb stem + たい, it behaves like an i-adjective and follows the same conjugations.

• 日本へ行きたいです。 (Nihon e ikitai desu.) I want to go to Japan.

• 寿司を食べたくないです。 (sushi o tabetakunai desu.) I don’t want to eat sushi.

• 海に行きたかったです。 (umi ni ikitakatta desu.) I wanted to go to the sea.

Nominalizing Qualities: 〜さ and 〜み

Turn adjectives into abstract nouns:

• 〜さ → objective degree/extent: 高さ (takasa) height, 長さ (nagasa) length

• 〜み → felt quality/flavor/tone: 甘み (amami) sweetness (taste), 苦み (nigami) bitterness

• 富士山の高さは有名です。 (Fujisan no takasa wa yūmei desu.) Mount Fuji’s height is famous.

• このお茶は甘みがあります。 (kono ocha wa amami ga arimasu.) This tea has sweetness.

Negative Before Nouns

You can place negative adjectives before nouns to mean “not … (noun).”

• 高くない本 (takakunai hon) a book that is not expensive

• 静かではない部屋 (shizuka de wa nai heya) a room that isn’t quiet

Adjectives with の as a Pronoun

Adjectives can be followed by の to avoid repeating a noun:

• 赤いのが欲しいです。 (akai no ga hoshii desu.) I want the red one.

• 静かなのが好きです。 (shizuka na no ga suki desu.) I like the quiet one.

Keigo Touches with Adjectives

In respectful speech, some adjectives take honorific framing, especially addressing others:

• お忙しい (o-isogashii) busy (honorific toward listener)

• お忙しいところ失礼します。 (o-isogashii tokoro shitsurei shimasu.) Sorry to bother you when you’re busy.

Adjective Stacking and Order

Multiple adjectives can appear before a noun (short stacks) or be chained with 〜くて／〜で:

• 明るくて広い部屋 (akarukute hiroi heya) a bright and spacious room

• 静かで便利な場所 (shizuka de benri na basho) a quiet and convenient place

For long descriptions, prefer clause modifiers:

• 駅から近くて静かな場所 (eki kara chikakute shizuka na basho) a place that’s close to the station and quiet.

Adjectives That Look Tricky

Some na-adjectives end with い but are not i-adjectives:

• きれい（な） (kirei (na)) pretty/clean

• 有名（な） (yūmei (na)) famous

• 嫌い（な） (kirai (na)) disliked

• 便利（な） (benri (na)) convenient

• この店はきれいです。 (kono mise wa kirei desu.) This shop is clean.

• 有名なレストランです。 (yūmei na resutoran desu.) It’s a famous restaurant.

Expressing Reason with Adjectives

i-adjectives can convey reason with 〜くて; for explicit “because,” use から／ので:

• 忙しくて行けません。 (isogashikute ikemasen.) I’m busy, so I can’t go.

• 寒いので中にいます。 (samui no de naka ni imasu.) Because it’s cold, I’ll stay inside.

Sound-Symbolic and Derivational Endings: 〜っぽい・〜らしい・〜げ

These attach to nouns or adjective stems and behave adjectivally with nuanced meanings:

• 〜っぽい (informal “-ish/prone to”): 子どもっぽい (kodomo-ppoi) childish, 忘れっぽい (wasure-ppoi) forgetful

• 〜らしい (“typical of/characteristic”): 男らしい (otoko-rashii) manly, 春らしい (haru-rashii) spring-like

• 〜げ (“looking/appearing to have a feeling”): 悲しげ (kanashi-ge) looking sad, 意味ありげ (imi-ari-ge) suggestive/meaningful-looking

• 彼は子どもっぽいところがあります。 (kare wa kodomo-ppoi tokoro ga arimasu.) He has a childish side.

• 彼女は悲しげな目をしている。 (kanojo wa kanashi-ge na me o shite iru.) She has sorrowful-looking eyes.

Practice Sentences

• このコーヒーは苦いです。 (kono kōhī wa nigai desu.) This coffee is bitter.

• 今日は涼しくて気持ちがいいです。 (kyō wa suzushikute kimochi ga ii desu.) It’s cool today and feels good.

• 新しいカメラは高くないです。 (atarashii kamera wa takakunai desu.) The new camera isn’t expensive.

• その店は静かでおしゃれです。 (sono mise wa shizuka de oshare desu.) That shop is quiet and stylish.

• この道は狭すぎます。 (kono michi wa semasugimasu.) This road is too narrow.

• 日本の夏は湿っぽいです。 (Nihon no natsu wa shime-ppoi desu.) Japanese summers are damp/humid.

• 明るい色のシャツが欲しいです。 (akarui iro no shatsu ga hoshii desu.) I want a brightly colored shirt.

• このケーキは甘くないのがいいです。 (kono kēki wa amakunai no ga ii desu.) I prefer this cake not sweet.

• 彼は優しそうですね。 (kare wa yasashisō desu ne.) He looks kind, doesn’t he?

• この町は夜になると静かになります。 (kono machi wa yoru ni naru to shizuka ni narimasu.) This town becomes quiet at night.

• それは便利じゃなかったです。 (sore wa benri ja nakatta desu.) That wasn’t convenient.

• この部屋は明るくて広くて住みやすいです。 (kono heya wa akarukute hirokute sumi-yasui desu.) This room is bright, spacious, and easy to live in.

Japanese Pronouns

Pronouns in Japanese: Forms, Politeness, and Real Usage

Japanese “pronouns” behave differently from those in many European languages. They are really nouns that refer to people or things and then take particles (は, が, を, に, で, へ, と, etc.) like any other noun. They do not inflect for case, number, or gender. Crucially, Japanese is a pro-drop language: if context makes the subject/object clear, speakers often omit pronouns entirely. Mastering Japanese pronouns therefore means learning when to use them—and when not to—as well as how register, politeness, and social stance change your choice.

First-Person Pronouns (“I / we”)

Japanese offers multiple ways to say “I,” each signaling formality, gendered expectations, age, and attitude. In many situations, especially once the topic is clear, Japanese simply drops “I.”

Common “I” forms (from most formal to very casual): 私／わたくし (watakushi), 私 (watashi), 僕 (boku), 俺 (ore); others include あたし (atashi) (casual feminine), うち (uchi) (regional/casual), わし (washi) (elderly male).
Plural is typically made with 〜たち / 〜ら or lexical items like 我々 (wareware).

Examples:
私は学生です。 (watashi wa gakusei desu.) I am a student.
僕は映画が好きです。 (boku wa eiga ga suki desu.) I like movies.
俺は行かない。 (ore wa ikanai.) I’m not going.
私たちは日本に住んでいます。 (watashi-tachi wa Nihon ni sunde imasu.) We live in Japan.
我々は準備ができています。 (wareware wa junbi ga dekite imasu.) We are ready.

Register notes: わたくし is very formal/polite; 私 (watashi) is default polite/neutral; 僕 is casual-polite (commonly male, also used by children); 俺 is masculine and rough/casual.

Second-Person Pronouns (“you”)

Japanese strongly prefers names + titles instead of “you.” Overusing second-person pronouns can sound abrupt or intimate. If you know the person’s name or role, use 〜さん, 先生, 部長, etc. When a pronoun is needed, choose carefully.

Common forms: あなた (anata) (neutral but often avoided in direct address), 君 (kimi) (to juniors/intimates), お前 (omae) (rough; can be rude), 貴方 (anata) (same pronunciation; kanji is formal in writing), polite/indirect options そちら / あなた様 (anata-sama, very formal), customer-service お客様 (o-kyaku-sama).

Examples:
田中さんは来ますか。 (Tanaka-san wa kimasu ka.) Are you (Mr./Ms. Tanaka) coming?
あなたはどう思いますか。 (anata wa dō omoimasu ka.) What do you think?
君は英語が話せる？ (kimi wa Eigo ga hanaseru?) Can you speak English?
お客様は何名様ですか。 (o-kyaku-sama wa nan-mei-sama desu ka.) How many are in your party, sir/ma’am?

Tip: In most real conversations, omit “you” if the addressee is obvious, or switch to name + さん.

Third-Person Pronouns (“he / she / they”)

Third-person pronouns exist but are much less frequent than in English. Speakers prefer names, roles, or descriptions. 彼 (kare) means “he/boyfriend (context-dependent),” 彼女 (kanojo) “she/girlfriend,” and 彼ら (karera) “they.” In mixed groups, 彼ら or 彼女たち / 彼ら may be used, but many choose あの人たち (ano hito-tachi) “those people.”

Examples:
彼は医者です。 (kare wa isha desu.) He is a doctor.
彼女は忙しいです。 (kanojo wa isogashii desu.) She is busy.
彼らは明日来ます。 (karera wa ashita kimasu.) They will come tomorrow.
あの人たちは学生です。 (ano hito-tachi wa gakusei desu.) Those people are students.

Caution: Because 彼／彼女 can imply “boyfriend/girlfriend,” using the person’s name is often safer.

Possessives: “my, your, their” and “mine, yours”

Possession is expressed with の after a pronoun or name. To say “mine/yours/etc.”, add もの (“thing”), or omit the noun if context is clear.

Examples:
私の本です。 (watashi no hon desu.) It’s my book.
これは私のものです。 (kore wa watashi no mono desu.) This is mine.
彼の車は新しいです。 (kare no kuruma wa atarashii desu.) His car is new.
あなたのはどれですか。 (anata no wa dore desu ka.) Which one is yours?

“Own” is often expressed with 自分の (jibun no):
自分の部屋に戻ります。 (jibun no heya ni modorimasu.) I’ll return to my own room.
Depending on context, 自分 can mean my/your/his/her own.

Reflexive and Emphatic “self”: 自分・自身

自分 (jibun) works as a reflexive (“oneself”) and as a pragmatic first/second person in some communities (sports teams, Kansai speech). 自身 (jishin) adds emphasis “oneself in person.”

Examples:
自分を信じてください。 (jibun o shinjite kudasai.) Believe in yourself.
彼は自分のミスを認めた。 (kare wa jibun no misu o mitometa.) He admitted his own mistake.
本人自身が説明しました。 (honnin jishin ga setsumei shimashita.) The person themselves explained it.

Plural Markers: 〜たち / 〜ら

Plurals are optional and used for people and animate nouns to emphasize group reference or inclusivity.

Examples:
私たちは出発します。 (watashi-tachi wa shuppatsu shimasu.) We will depart.
彼らは学生です。 (karera wa gakusei desu.) They are students.
子どもらが遊んでいる。 (kodomo-ra ga asonde iru.) The kids are playing. (colloquial/regional)

Note that Japanese often omits plurality when context suffices.

Pronoun Dropping (Zero Pronouns) in Practice

Japanese frequently omits repeated or obvious subjects and objects. Context or topic marking は supplies the reference.

Examples:
行きます。 (ikimasu.) I’m going.
見た？ (mita?) Did you see (it)?
今日は忙しいから、明日行く。 (kyō wa isogashii kara, ashita iku.) I’m busy today, so (I’ll) go tomorrow.

This is normal and polite when the referent is clear.

Demonstrative Pronouns: こ・そ・あ・ど System

Demonstratives provide distance and reference relative to speaker/listener.

Pronouns for “this/that/which (thing)”
これ (kore) this (near speaker), それ (sore) that (near listener/just mentioned), あれ (are) that over there/away from both, どれ (dore) which.

Examples:
これは新しいです。 (kore wa atarashii desu.) This is new.
それをください。 (sore o kudasai.) That, please.
あれは学校です。 (are wa gakkō desu.) That (over there) is a school.
どれが一番好きですか。 (dore ga ichiban suki desu ka.) Which do you like most?

Attributive (“this/that” + noun)
この／その／あの／どの + N
この本は面白い。 (kono hon wa omoshiroi.) This book is interesting.
どの道が近いですか。 (dono michi ga chikai desu ka.) Which road is closer?

People/places (often politer alternatives):
こちら／そちら／あちら／どちら (this/that way; this/that person; which)
こちらは田中です。 (kochira wa Tanaka desu.) This is Tanaka speaking.
どちら様ですか。 (dochira-sama desu ka.) Who is this, please? (very polite)

Locations:
ここ／そこ／あそこ／どこ
ここは静かです。 (koko wa shizuka desu.) It’s quiet here.
駅はどこですか。 (eki wa doko desu ka.) Where is the station?

Interrogative Pronouns and “Someone/No one/Anyone” Patterns

Question words become indefinites or negatives with particles か／も／でも (and context).

Base interrogatives: 誰 (dare) who, 何 (nani) what, どこ (doko) where, どれ (dore) which (thing), どちら (dochira) which (of two)/where (polite), いつ (itsu) when, なぜ／どうして (naze/dōshite) why, どう (dō) how.

Indefinite/negative patterns:
誰か someone; 誰も no one (with negative); 誰でも anyone/everyone (affirmative)
何か something; 何も nothing (with negative); 何でも anything/everything
どこか somewhere; どこも nowhere (with negative); どこでも anywhere/everywhere

Examples:
誰か来ました。 (dareka kimashita.) Someone came.
誰も来ませんでした。 (daremo kimasen deshita.) No one came.
何か問題がありますか。 (nanika mondai ga arimasu ka.) Is there any problem?
何も分かりません。 (nanimo wakarimasen.) I don’t understand anything.
どこでもいいです。 (dokodemo ii desu.) Anywhere is fine.

Note: いつも normally means always; with a negative it can mean never.
いつも忙しいです。 (itsumo isogashii desu.) I’m always busy.
彼は約束をいつも守りません。 (kare wa yakusoku o itsumo mamorimasen.) He never keeps promises. (context-dependent)

Social Titles and Address Instead of “You”

Using name + さん or a title is the most natural way to address people. In professional settings, 役職 (yakushoku) titles are common; in service contexts, お客様 etc. Avoid translating English “you” literally unless you need it.

Examples:
山田先生、明日は大丈夫ですか。 (Yamada-sensei, ashita wa daijōbu desu ka.) Professor Yamada, is tomorrow okay?
部長はこの案をどう思いますか。 (buchō wa kono an o dō omoimasu ka.) Director, what do you think of this proposal?

Politeness, Gender, and Persona in Pronoun Choice

Pronouns carry persona. Picking 私 (watashi) vs 僕 (boku) vs 俺 (ore) broadcasts formality and stance. Overly intimate or rough pronouns can offend. In many formal contexts, pronouns are minimized; speakers favor titles, company names (“弊社/当社”), or self-effacing expressions.

Examples:
私どもはこの点を重視しております。 (watashi-domo wa kono ten o jūshi shite orimasu.) We (humble) place importance on this point.
弊社は来月発表します。 (heisha wa raigetsu happyō shimasu.) Our (humble, company) firm will announce next month.

“This person / That person”: 人 and 方 as Polite Pronouns

For third-person reference, 人 (hito) and its honorific 方 (kata) are common and natural.

Examples:
あの人は有名です。 (ano hito wa yūmei desu.) That person is famous.
どの方ですか。 (dono kata desu ka.) Which person is it? (polite)

Archaic, Dialectal, and Rough Forms (Handle with Care)

Some forms are literary, dialectal, or potentially rude: 我 (ware) (archaic/formal), 我々 (wareware) (formal “we”), 手前/てめえ (temee) and 貴様 (kisama) (insulting), お主 (onushi) (historical), 拙者 (sessha) (samurai-ish), あたい (atai) (slangy feminine), うち (uchi) (Kansai “I/we; home”).

Unless you have a specific stylistic reason, stick to neutral options.

Pronouns with Particles: Case-like Roles

Because pronouns are nouns, they combine with particles for grammatical roles.

Examples:
私は映画を見ます。 (watashi wa eiga o mimasu.) I watch movies.
彼が来ました。 (kare ga kimashita.) He came.
あなたに質問があります。 (anata ni shitsumon ga arimasu.) I have a question for you.
彼女と行きます。 (kanojo to ikimasu.) I’ll go with her.

“One(s)” and Avoiding Repetition with の

Use の to stand for an omitted noun after adjectives/demonstratives, rather than repeating the noun or forcing a pronoun.

Examples:
赤いのが好きです。 (akai no ga suki desu.) I like the red one.
その大きいのをください。 (sono ōkii no o kudasai.) Please give me the big one.

Generic “You/One” in Statements

Japanese often uses 人 (hito), みんな (minna), 誰でも (dare demo), or simply topic constructions to express generic truths.

Examples:
人は失敗から学ぶ。 (hito wa shippai kara manabu.) People learn from failure.
早起きは体にいい。 (hayaoki wa karada ni ii.) Getting up early is good for you/one’s health.
誰でも間違える。 (dare demo machigaeru.) Anyone makes mistakes.

When Not to Use Pronouns: Natural Ellipsis

In narratives and dialogue, repeating pronouns sounds unnatural. Prefer topic continuity, names, and zero pronouns.

Contrast:
私は会社に行きます。私はメールを書きます。私は昼ご飯を食べます。 (very unnatural repetition)
Natural:
会社に行って、メールを書いて、昼ご飯を食べます。 (kaisha ni itte, mēru o kaite, hirugohan o tabemasu.) I’ll go to the office, write emails, and eat lunch.

Mini Practice: Choosing Naturally

Identify where pronouns are needed—and where they should be dropped.

今日は忙しいから、あとで電話します。 (kyō wa isogashii kara, ato de denwa shimasu.) I’m busy today, so I’ll call later.
田中さん、明日は大丈夫ですか。 (Tanaka-san, ashita wa daijōbu desu ka.) Mr./Ms. Tanaka, is tomorrow okay?
彼は自分の意見をはっきり言います。 (kare wa jibun no iken o hakkiri iimasu.) He states his own opinion clearly.
これは私のです。 (kore wa watashi no desu.) This is mine.
どちら様でしょうか。 (dochira-sama deshō ka.) Who is this, please? (on the phone/at the door)

Honorific Language

Japanese honorific language—敬語 (keigo)—is a system that encodes social relations right inside grammar. Instead of a single “formal” switch, keigo distinguishes politeness (丁寧語 teineigo), respectful language (尊敬語 sonkeigo) for elevating the other party, and humble language (謙譲語 kenjōgo) for lowering yourself or your in-group. Mastering when and how to use each layer is the key to sounding professional, considerate, and natural.

The Three Pillars of Keigo

• 丁寧語 (teineigo): the polite style built around です／ます.
  行きます。 (ikimasu.) I go.
  大丈夫です。 (daijōbu desu.) It’s okay.

• 尊敬語 (sonkeigo): raises the subject (usually the listener or an out-group person).
  社長はお戻りになります。 (shachō wa o-modori ni narimasu.) The president will return.
  先生がいらっしゃいます。 (sensei ga irasshaimasu.) The teacher is here.

• 謙譲語 (kenjōgo): humbles the speaker or in-group when referring to their own actions toward the other party.
  私がご説明いたします。 (watashi ga go-setsumei itashimasu.) I will explain (humbly).
  後ほど伺います。 (nochihodo ukagaimasu.) I will visit/ask (humbly) later.

Uchi–Soto: Who Gets Raised, Who Gets Lowered

In Japanese interaction, you usually raise the other (soto) and lower yourself/your side (uchi) when speaking with outsiders or superiors. Talking to a client about your manager? Your manager is uchi: use humble language for your side. Talking about the client? Use respectful language for them.

• 部長はただいま外出しております。 (buchō wa tadaima gaishutsu shite orimasu.) Our manager is out (humble progressive).

• 田中様はお待ちでしょうか。 (Tanaka-sama wa o-machi deshō ka.) Is Mr./Ms. Tanaka waiting?

Polite Style (丁寧語): です／ます and Formal Variants

The baseline polite form is です／ます. Higher formality uses でございます, and humble progressives use 〜ております; honorific copula でいらっしゃいます appears in very formal speech.

• こちらが資料でございます。 (kochira ga shiryō de gozaimasu.) Here are the materials.

• ただいま確認しております。 (tadaima kakunin shite orimasu.) We are currently checking (humbly).

• 担当は山田でいらっしゃいます。 (tantō wa Yamada de irasshaimasu.) The person in charge is Yamada (honorific).

Respectful Verbs (尊敬語): Suppletive Forms and Patterns

Many everyday verbs have respectful counterparts that elevate the subject.

• いる／行く／来る → いらっしゃる
  社長はいらっしゃいますか。 (shachō wa irasshaimasu ka.) Is the president here?

• する → なさる
  どのようになさいますか。 (dono yō ni nasaimasu ka.) How would you like to proceed?

• 言う → おっしゃる
  何とおっしゃいましたか。 (nanto osshaimashita ka.) What did you say?

• 見る → ご覧になる
  こちらをご覧になりますか。 (kochira o goran ni narimasu ka.) Would you like to take a look?

• 食べる／飲む → 召し上がる
  お茶を召し上がりますか。 (ocha o meshiagarimasu ka.) Will you have tea?

• くれる → くださる
  ご連絡くださいまして、ありがとうございます。 (go-renraku kudasaimashite, arigatō gozaimasu.) Thank you for contacting us.

Productive respectful pattern (for many verbs): お + verb stem + になる

• お読みになります (o-yomi ni narimasu) read (respectfully)

• お待ちになります (o-machi ni narimasu) wait (respectfully)

For many suru-verbs (verbal nouns), use ご + noun + なさる:

• ご説明なさる (go-setsumei nasaru) explain (respectfully)

• ご相談なさいますか。 (go-sōdan nasaimasu ka.) Would you like to consult/discuss?

Humble Verbs (謙譲語): Suppletive Forms and Patterns

Humble verbs lower the speaker/in-group when acting toward the listener/out-group.

• 行く／来る → 参る
  明日伺います／参ります。 (ashita ukagaimasu / mairimasu.) I will come/visit (humbly) tomorrow.

• いる → おる
  私どもは三階におります。 (watashi-domo wa sankai ni orimasu.) We are on the third floor (humble).

• する → いたす
  手配いたします。 (tehai itashimasu.) We will arrange (humbly).

• 言う → 申す／申し上げる
  田中と申します。 (Tanaka to mōshimasu.) My name is Tanaka.
  お礼を申し上げます。 (orei o mōshiagemasu.) I would like to express my thanks.

• 見る → 拝見する
  資料を拝見しました。 (shiryō o haiken shimashita.) I have looked over the materials.

• 聞く／訪ねる → 伺う
  一点伺ってもよろしいでしょうか。 (itten ukagatte mo yoroshii deshō ka.) May I ask one point?

• 知る → 存じる／存じ上げる
  その件は存じております。 (sono ken wa zonjite orimasu.) I am aware of that matter.

• もらう → いただく
  ご返信をいただきありがとうございます。 (go-henshin o itadaki arigatō gozaimasu.) Thank you for your reply.

Productive humble pattern: お/ご + verb stem + する／いたす

• お待ちいたします (o-machi itashimasu) I will wait (humbly).

• ご連絡いたします (go-renraku itashimasu) I will contact (humbly).

Beautifying and Polite Prefixes: お／ご

The prefixes お (generally native words) and ご (generally Sino-Japanese words) add politeness and refinement.

• お名前 (o-namae) name (polite)

• お手紙 (o-tegami) letter (polite)

• ご家族 (go-kazoku) family (polite)

• ご都合 (go-tsugō) convenience (polite)

• お手伝いします。 (o-tetsudai shimasu.) I will help (polite).

• ご協力ありがとうございます。 (go-kyōryoku arigatō gozaimasu.) Thank you for your cooperation.

Requests, Offers, and Allowing/Receiving Actions

Keigo distinguishes asking someone to do, humbly doing for them, and receiving a favor.

• 〜てください (neutral polite request)
  少々お待ちください。 (shōshō o-machi kudasai.) Please wait a moment.

• 〜てくださいますか (respectful request to the listener)
  ご確認くださいますか。 (go-kakunin kudasaimasu ka.) Would you kindly check?

• 〜ていただけますか／〜ていただけないでしょうか (humbly request permission/favor)
  お時間をいただけますか。 (o-jikan o itadakemasu ka.) May I have some of your time?
  ご対応いただけないでしょうか。 (go-taiō itadakenai deshō ka.) Could you possibly handle this?

• 〜させていただく (humbly receive permission to do)
  こちらで対応させていただきます。 (kochira de taiō sasete itadakimasu.) Allow us to handle it.

Giving and Receiving Verbs in Keigo

• あげる (give) → humble 差し上げる
  資料を差し上げます。 (shiryō o sashiagemasu.) I will give you the materials (humbly).

• くれる (give to me/us) → respectful くださる
  ご連絡くださいました。 (go-renraku kudasaimashita.) [They] kindly contacted us.

• もらう (receive) → humble いただく
  ご意見をいただきました。 (go-iken o itadakimashita.) We received opinions/feedback.

Honorific Copulas and Progressives

• です／ます (polite), でございます (very polite)
  私どもは販売代理店でございます。 (watashi-domo wa hanbai dairiten de gozaimasu.) We are a sales agency.

• 〜ております (humble progressive)
  準備を進めております。 (junbi o susumete orimasu.) We are proceeding with preparations.

• 〜でいらっしゃいます (honorific copula)
  担当は田中でいらっしゃいます。 (tantō wa Tanaka de irasshaimasu.) The person in charge is Tanaka.

Typical Business Keigo Phrases

• いつもお世話になっております。 (itsumo o-sewa ni natte orimasu.) Thank you for your continued support.

• 恐れ入りますが、こちらにご記入ください。 (osore irimasu ga, kochira ni go-kiniyū kudasai.) Pardon me, please fill this out.

• ご迷惑をおかけして申し訳ございません。 (go-meiwaku o okake shite mōshiwake gozaimasen.) We sincerely apologize for the inconvenience.

• 何卒よろしくお願い申し上げます。 (nantodzu yoroshiku onegai mōshiagemasu.) We humbly ask for your kind cooperation.

Keigo for States and Health

• お元気でいらっしゃいますか。 (o-genki de irasshaimasu ka.) How are you? (honorific)

• ご在宅でしょうか。 (go-zaitaku deshō ka.) Are you at home? (honorific)

• 体調はいかがでございますか。 (taichō wa ikaga de gozaimasu ka.) How is your condition? (very polite)

Building Respectful/Humble Forms Productively

Respectful pattern: お + verb stem + になる

• お待ちになりますか。 (o-machi ni narimasu ka.) Will you wait?

• お帰りになりました。 (o-kaeri ni narimashita.) [They] returned.

Humble pattern: お/ご + verb stem + する／いたす

• お電話いたします。 (o-denwa itashimasu.) I will call you (humbly).

• ご案内いたします。 (go-annai itashimasu.) I will guide you (humbly).

Suru-verbs: choose ご + noun + します／いたします (humble) or ご + noun + なさいます (respectful).

• ご連絡いたします。 (go-renraku itashimasu.) We’ll contact you (humble).

• ご説明なさいますか。 (go-setsumei nasaimasu ka.) Would you explain? (respectful)

Phone and Front-Desk Politeness

• 少々お待ちくださいませ。 (shōshō o-machi kudasaimase.) Please wait a moment (very polite).

• ただいまおつなぎいたします。 (tadaima o-tsunagi itashimasu.) I will connect you now.

• 山田は席を外しております。 (Yamada wa seki o hazushite orimasu.) Yamada is away from the desk.

• 折り返しご連絡いたします。 (orikaeshi go-renraku itashimasu.) We will call you back.

Common Pitfalls and How to Avoid Them

• Double keigo (過剰敬語): don’t stack respectful forms redundantly.
  ✗ お読みになられますか。 (o-yomi ni nararemasu ka.)
  ✓ お読みになりますか。 (o-yomi ni narimasu ka.) Would you read?

• Mixing respect for your own side: Do not use respectful forms for your in-group when speaking to an outsider.
  ✗ 部長がご覧になりました。 (about your own manager to a client)
  ✓ 部長が拝見いたしました。 (buchō ga haiken itashimashita.) Our manager has looked (humble).

• Wrong prefix: お generally for native words, ご for Sino-Japanese.
  ✓ お電話, ご連絡; avoid ご手紙 or お協力.

• Overusing “あなた”: address by name + 様／さん or by title.
  田中様、こちらでよろしいでしょうか。 (Tanaka-sama, kochira de yoroshii deshō ka.) Mr./Ms. Tanaka, is this all right?

Polite Apologies and Thanks: Register Matters

• 失礼いたしました。 (shitsurei itashimashita.) I’m terribly sorry.

• 申し訳ございません。 (mōshiwake gozaimasen.) We deeply apologize.

• ありがとうございます。 (arigatō gozaimasu.) Thank you.

• 厚く御礼申し上げます。 (atsuku o-rei mōshiagemasu.) We express our profound thanks.

Transforming Plain to Keigo: Mini Practice

• Plain → Polite:
  今、見ます。 (ima, mimasu.) → ただいま拝見いたします。 (tadaima haiken itashimasu.) I’ll look right away (humble).

• Plain → Respectful (their action):
  社長は来ます。 (shachō wa kimasu.) → 社長はいらっしゃいます。 (shachō wa irasshaimasu.) The president will come/is here.

• Plain Request → Polite/Humble Request:
  見てください。 (mite kudasai.) → ご確認いただけますか。 (go-kakunin itadakemasu ka.) Could you please check?

Keigo in Writing vs. Speech

Emails and announcements skew more formal and formulaic, often with でございます, いたします, 申し上げます. Spoken customer service frequently uses 〜でございます, 少々お待ちくださいませ, かしこまりました.

• かしこまりました。 (kashikomarimashita.) Certainly (I understand and will comply).

• 只今参ります。 (tadaima mairimasu.) I’m coming at once (humble).

Subtle Nuance: Choosing Respectful vs. Humble Around the Same Event

If they perform the action, elevate them (尊敬語). If you perform the action for them, humble yourself (謙譲語).

• 社長が資料をご覧になります。 (shachō ga shiryō o goran ni narimasu.) The president will look at the materials.

• 私が資料を拝見いたします。 (watashi ga shiryō o haiken itashimasu.) I will look at the materials (humbly).

Polite Degrees: Calibrating Up or Down

You can fine-tune politeness by swapping components:

• 見る → 見ます (polite) → ご覧になります (respectful) / 拝見します (humble)

• 言う → 言います (polite) → おっしゃいます (respectful) / 申します (humble)

• いる → います (polite) → いらっしゃいます (respectful) / おります (humble)

Keigo with Nouns and Titles

Use appropriate address forms: 様 (sama) is respectful; 殿 (dono) is archaic/formal written; job titles often replace names.

• 田中様 (Tanaka-sama) Mr./Ms. Tanaka

• 部長 (buchō) department manager

• 山田部長 (Yamada-buchō) Manager Yamada

Putting Keigo into Real Sentences

• いつもご利用いただき、誠にありがとうございます。 (itsumo go-riyō itadaki, makoto ni arigatō gozaimasu.) Thank you sincerely for your continued patronage.

• 恐れ入りますが、こちらにお名前をご記入ください。 (osore irimasu ga, kochira ni o-namae o go-kiniyū kudasai.) Pardon me, please write your name here.

• 担当者より改めてご連絡差し上げます。 (tantōsha yori aratamete go-renraku sashiagemasu.) Our representative will contact you again.

• 会議は十時からでございます。 (kaigi wa jūji kara de gozaimasu.) The meeting starts at ten.

• 本日はお越しくださり、ありがとうございます。 (honjitsu wa o-koshi kudasari, arigatō gozaimasu.) Thank you for coming today.

• 資料を拝見し、こちらで手配いたします。 (shiryō o haiken shi, kochira de tehai itashimasu.) We’ll review the materials and arrange it on our side.

A Practical Checklist for Honorific Accuracy

• Choose です／ます as your polite baseline; upgrade to でございます in formal service or writing.

• Elevate the other party with 尊敬語 (いらっしゃる／なさる／召し上がる／ご覧になる／おっしゃる／くださる).

• Lower your side with 謙譲語 (参る／おる／いたす／申す／拝見する／伺う／差し上げる／いただく).

• Use お／ご prefixes appropriately to add polish: お名前／ご連絡.

• Build forms productively: お + V-stem + になる (respectful), お/ご + V-stem + する／いたす (humble).

• Request gracefully: 〜てくださいますか／〜ていただけますか／〜ていただけないでしょうか.

• Avoid double keigo and avoid honoring your in-group to outsiders.

• Prefer name + 様／title over “あなた,” especially in business.

Japanese Adverbs

Adverbs in Japanese: Types, Formation, Placement, and Nuance

Adverbs in Japanese (副詞 fukushi) modify verbs, adjectives, whole clauses, and sometimes the speaker’s attitude. They don’t inflect, and they are placed before what they modify (typically just before the verb phrase or adjective). Some adverbs come from adjectives (〜く / 〜に forms), others are native adverbs (e.g., よく, たぶん, もう, まだ), and many are set expressions (せっかく, やっぱり, もちろん, まったく). Because Japanese relies heavily on word order, particles, and context, adverbs are crucial for precision and naturalness.

Where Adverbs Go (Placement and Scope)

Adverbs usually appear before the predicate or before the adjective they qualify. They can also appear after the topic for focus.

• 私はよく日本語を勉強します。 (watashi wa yoku Nihongo o benkyō shimasu.) As for me, I often study Japanese.

• 本はとても高いです。 (hon wa totemo takai desu.) Books are very expensive.

• 明日はたぶん行きます。 (ashita wa tabun ikimasu.) As for tomorrow, I’ll probably go.

• たぶん明日行きます。 (tabun ashita ikimasu.) I’ll probably go tomorrow.

Moving an adverb earlier (e.g., before the topic) can widen its scope to the whole utterance; moving it closer to the verb can narrow the focus.

Making Adverbs from Adjectives: 〜く and 〜に

Adverbs are often derived from adjectives:

• i-adjectives → 〜く
  速い → 速く (hayai → hayaku) fast → quickly

  • 速く走ります。 (hayaku hashirimasu.) I run quickly.

• na-adjectives → 〜に
  静か（な）→ 静かに (shizuka (na) → shizuka ni) quiet → quietly

  • 静かに話してください。 (shizuka ni hanashite kudasai.) Please speak quietly.

• いい uses the historic stem よ in derived forms:

  • よく分かります。 (yoku wakarimasu.) I understand well.

Time and Aspect Adverbs: もう vs まだ, さっき, すぐ, ずっと

These anchor when something happens or whether it’s already/not yet.

• もう “already/already now”
  もう帰りました。 (mō kaerimashita.) I already went home.

• まだ “still; not yet (with negative)”
  まだ起きています。 (mada okite imasu.) I’m still awake.
  まだ終わっていません。 (mada owatte imasen.) It hasn’t finished yet.

• さっき “a moment ago”
  さっき見ました。 (sakki mimashita.) I saw it a moment ago.

• すぐ “right away/soon; nearby”
  すぐ行きます。 (sugu ikimasu.) I’ll go right away.

• ずっと “the whole time; by far; continuously”
  ずっと勉強していました。 (zutto benkyō shite imashita.) I was studying the whole time.
  東京はずっと大きいです。 (Tōkyō wa zutto ōkii desu.) Tokyo is by far bigger.

Frequency Adverbs: よく, たいてい, ときどき, たまに, まれに, まったく

These say how often an action occurs.

• よく “often; well”
  日本語でよく話します。 (Nihongo de yoku hanashimasu.) I often speak in Japanese.

• たいてい “usually; generally”
  たいてい家で食べます。 (taitei ie de tabemasu.) I usually eat at home.

• ときどき “sometimes”
  ときどき映画を見ます。 (tokidoki eiga o mimasu.) I sometimes watch movies.

• たまに “occasionally (rarer than ときどき)”
  たまに外食します。 (tamani gaishoku shimasu.) I occasionally eat out.

• まれに “rarely”
  まれに雪が降ります。 (mare ni yuki ga furimasu.) It rarely snows.

• まったく with 否定 → “not at all”
  まったく分かりません。 (mattaku wakarimasen.) I don’t understand at all.

Degree and Intensity: とても, すごく, かなり, 少し/ちょっと, あまり, 全然

These modify adjectives/adverbs/verbs for intensity. Some are polarity-sensitive.

• とても “very” (neutral/polite)
  とてもおいしいです。 (totemo oishii desu.) It’s very tasty.

• すごく “very/really” (casual, emphatic)
  すごく大きいですね。 (sugoku ōkii desu ne.) It’s really big, isn’t it.

• かなり “quite/fairly”
  かなり難しい問題です。 (kanari muzukashii mondai desu.) It’s quite a difficult problem.

• 少し / ちょっと “a little; somewhat” (ちょっと softens requests/refusals)
  少し寒いです。 (sukoshi samui desu.) It’s a little cold.
  今日はちょっと… (kyō wa chotto…) Today is a bit… (I’d rather not).

• あまり + 否定 “not very/much”
  あまり好きではありません。 (amari suki de wa arimasen.) I don’t like it very much.

• 全然 + 否定 “not at all” (colloquial positive use exists: 全然大丈夫 “totally fine”)
  全然時間がありません。 (zenzen jikan ga arimasen.) I have no time at all.

Manner Adverbs: はっきり, ゆっくり, ちゃんと, きちんと, じっくり

These describe how an action is performed.

• はっきり “clearly”
  はっきり聞こえます。 (hakkiri kikoemasu.) I can hear clearly.

• ゆっくり “slowly; at ease”
  ゆっくり休んでください。 (yukkuri yasunde kudasai.) Please rest well/slowly.

• ちゃんと / きちんと “properly; neatly”
  ちゃんと説明しました。 (chanto setsumei shimashita.) I explained properly.
  きちんと片付けました。 (kichinto katazukemashita.) I tidied up neatly.

• じっくり “carefully; without haste”
  じっくり考えます。 (jikkuri kangaemasu.) I’ll think it over carefully.

Stance, Certainty, and Probability: たぶん, きっと, おそらく, 確かに/確か, もちろん

These color the speaker’s attitude toward truth, certainty, or commitment.

• たぶん “probably; I guess”
  たぶん雨です。 (tabun ame desu.) It’ll probably rain.

• きっと “surely; I’m confident”
  きっと成功します。 (kitto seikō shimasu.) We’ll surely succeed.

• おそらく “likely; presumably” (slightly formal)
  おそらく彼は来ません。 (osoraku kare wa kimasen.) He likely won’t come.

• 確か “if I recall correctly”; 確かに “certainly/indeed”
  確か三時でした。 (tashika sanji deshita.) If I remember, it was three.
  確かにその通りです。 (tashika ni sono tōri desu.) Certainly, that’s correct.

• もちろん “of course”
  もちろん行きます。 (mochiron ikimasu.) Of course I’ll go.

Contrast and Discourse Adverbs: しかし, でも, それでも, それに, つまり

These connect ideas as adverbials (often translated as conjunctions).

• しかし “however (formal)”
  しかし問題があります。 (shikashi mondai ga arimasu.) However, there is a problem.

• でも “but/however (casual)”
  でも高いです。 (demo takai desu.) But it’s expensive.

• それでも “even so”
  それでも続けます。 (soredemo tsuzukemasu.) Even so, I’ll continue.

• それに “besides/in addition”
  それに時間がありません。 (soreni jikan ga arimasen.) Besides, there’s no time.

• つまり “in other words”
  つまり無理です。 (tsumari muri desu.) In other words, it’s impossible.

Polarity-Sensitive Adverbs: 別に, 決して, なかなか, どうしても

These strongly interact with affirmative/negative predicates.

• 別に + 否定 “not particularly”
  別に欲しくありません。 (betsu ni hoshiku arimasen.) I don’t particularly want it.

• 決して + 否定 “by no means/never”
  決して諦めません。 (kesshite akiramemasen.) I will by no means give up.
  決して遅くありません。 (kesshite osoku arimasen.) It’s by no means late.

• なかなか + 否定 “not easily/rarely”
  なかなか眠れません。 (nakanaka nemuremasen.) I can’t fall asleep easily.

• どうしても (insistence)
  どうしても行きたいです。 (dōshitemo ikitai desu.) I absolutely want to go.
  どうしても間に合いません。 (dōshitemo maniaimasen.) No matter what, I can’t make it.

Focus and Limitation Used Adverbially

Some focus markers behave adverbially in the clause (though they are not pure adverbs). Use them carefully:

• だけ “only/just”
  一つだけ買いました。 (hitotsu dake kaimashita.) I bought only one.

• 少なくとも “at least”
  少なくとも三回は練習します。 (sukunakutomo sankai wa renshū shimasu.) I’ll practice at least three times.

• せいぜい “at most”
  せいぜい十分です。 (seizei juppun desu.) Ten minutes at most.

• ほとんど “mostly/almost” (with negatives: “hardly”)
  ほとんど終わりました。 (hotondo owarimashita.) It’s mostly done.
  ほとんど食べません。 (hotondo tabemasen.) I hardly eat (it).

Register and Softening: 丁寧さを作る副詞

Some adverbs soften tone or add formality.

• 少々 (formal “a little”)
  少々お待ちください。 (shōshō o-machi kudasai.) Please wait a moment.

• 恐れ入りますが (very polite “I’m sorry but…”)
  恐れ入りますが、こちらにご記入ください。 (osore irimasu ga, kochira ni go-kiniyū kudasai.) Pardon me, please fill this in.

• 誠に (very formal “truly/sincerely”)
  誠にありがとうございます。 (makoto ni arigatō gozaimasu.) Thank you sincerely.

Subtle Meaning-Rich Adverbs: せっかく, やっぱり/やはり, いちおう, 一体

These add speaker perspective or expectation.

• せっかく “with effort/rare chance (and expectation)”
  せっかく来たのに会えませんでした。 (sekkaku kita no ni aemasen deshita.) I came all the way, but couldn’t meet.

• やっぱり / やはり “as expected/after all/indeed”
  やっぱり難しいです。 (yappari muzukashii desu.) As expected, it’s difficult.

• いちおう “for the time being; tentatively”
  いちおう確認しました。 (ichiō kakunin shimashita.) I’ve checked—for now.

• 一体 (intensifier in questions, often frustrated)
  一体何が起きたんですか。 (ittai nani ga okitan desu ka.) What on earth happened?

Common Collocations and Natural Pairings

Adverbs often pair naturally with certain predicates:

• だいたい + quantities/estimates
  だいたい三十分です。 (daitai sanjuppun desu.) About 30 minutes.

• すっかり + completion/change-of-state
  すっかり良くなりました。 (sukkari yoku narimashita.) I’ve completely recovered.

• ちゃんと/きちんと + する/やる/守る
  約束をちゃんと守ります。 (yakusoku o chanto mamorimasu.) I keep promises properly.

• 必ず/絶対に + affirmative obligation/intention
  必ず連絡します。 (kanarazu renraku shimasu.) I will contact you without fail.
  絶対に遅れません。 (zettai ni okuremasen.) I will never be late.

Adverbs with Adjectives vs. Verbs: Reading the Nuance

The same adverb can sound different with verbs vs. adjectives:

• かなり速く走ります。 (kanari hayaku hashirimasu.) I run quite fast.

• かなり速いです。 (kanari hayai desu.) It’s quite fast.

With adjectives, the adverb targets quality/degree; with verbs, it often targets manner/speed/frequency.

Multiple Adverbs Together (Order and Rhythm)

You can stack adverbs; put stance/time/frequency earlier and manner/degree closer to the predicate.

• たぶん明日はよく寝ます。 (tabun ashita wa yoku nemasu.) I’ll probably sleep well tomorrow.

• 昨日は本当にゆっくり休みました。 (kinō wa hontō ni yukkuri yasumimashita.) Yesterday I truly rested at ease.

Mini Practice: Rewrite for Naturalness

• 私は日本語をとても上手に話します。 (watashi wa Nihongo o totemo jōzu ni hanashimasu.) I speak Japanese very well.
  → More natural topic/focus: 日本語はわりと上手に話します。 (Nihongo wa warito jōzu ni hanashimasu.) As for Japanese, I speak it fairly well.

• 彼は全然来ます。 (kare wa zenzen kimasu.) ✗ (odd in standard)
  → 彼は全然来ません。 (kare wa zenzen kimasen.) He doesn’t come at all. ✓
  → Casual positive (acceptable in speech, different nuance): 彼は全然大丈夫です。 (kare wa zenzen daijōbu desu.) He’s totally fine.

Sentence Examples Bringing It Together

• もう宿題はほとんど終わりました。 (mō shukudai wa hotondo owarimashita.) I’ve already mostly finished the homework.

• 最近はかなり忙しいです。 (saikin wa kanari isogashii desu.) Lately I’m quite busy.

• ゆっくり丁寧に説明してください。 (yukkuri teinei ni setsumei shite kudasai.) Please explain slowly and carefully.

• やっぱり彼は来ないと思います。 (yappari kare wa konai to omoimasu.) After all, I think he won’t come.

• せっかくなので一緒に写真を撮りましょう。 (sekkaku na no de issho ni shashin o torimashō.) Since it’s a good chance, let’s take a photo together.

• どうしても今日中に終わらせたいです。 (dōshitemo kyōjū ni owarasettai desu.) I absolutely want to finish within today.

• 本当にありがとうございます。 (hontō ni arigatō gozaimasu.) Thank you very much.

• すっかり忘れていました。 (sukkari wasurete imashita.) I completely forgot.

Checklist for Mastering Japanese Adverbs

• Place adverbs before what they modify; put stance/time/frequency earlier, manner/degree closer to the verb.

• Build adverbs from adjectives with 〜く (i-adj) and 〜に (na-adj).

• Remember polarity rules: あまり/全然/別に/なかなか usually pair with negatives (with noted colloquial exceptions).

• Distinguish もう (already) vs まだ (still/not yet), and きっと/たぶん/おそらく (levels of certainty).

• Use ちゃんと/きちんと/ゆっくり/はっきり/じっくり for natural manner expressions.

• Adopt せっかく/やっぱり/いちおう/一体 to convey speaker stance and pragmatic nuance.

With these patterns and examples, you can control when, how often, how strongly, in what manner, and with what attitude your sentence conveys its message—exactly the work that adverbs do in Japanese.

Present Tense in Japanese

Japanese doesn’t split verbs into a strict present vs. future the way English does. Instead, it has a non-past form that covers present, habitual, generic truths, and scheduled/near future. Context—time words, adverbs, and shared situation—tells you whether a sentence refers to now or later.

• 今、雨が降ります。 (ima, ame ga furimasu.) It rains now.

• 明日、雨が降ります。 (ashita, ame ga furimasu.) It will rain tomorrow.

• 私は毎朝コーヒーを飲みます。 (watashi wa mai-asa kōhī o nomimasu.) I drink coffee every morning.

• 水は百度で沸騰します。 (mizu wa hyakudo de futtō shimasu.) Water boils at 100°C.

The same non-past shape 〜る／〜う／〜ます covers all of these; time phrases like 今 (now), いつも (always), 明日 (tomorrow) decide the reading.

Politeness vs. Plain: Two Present Baselines

Japanese verbs present two “tracks” of the non-past:

• Polite (ます) for most everyday interactions.

• Plain (dictionary form) for neutral writing, inner speech, friends, or when embedding in larger structures (like relative clauses).

• 行きます。 (ikimasu.) I’m going / I go.

• 行く。 (iku.) I go / I’ll go.

• 仕事は七時に始まります。 (shigoto wa shichiji ni hajimarimasu.) Work starts at seven.

• 仕事は七時に始まる。 (shigoto wa shichiji ni hajimaru.) Work starts at seven.

Both are present/non-past; the difference is politeness, not time.

Habitual and Generic Uses of the Non-Past

Use the non-past for habits and general truths. Adverbs like いつも (always), よく (often), たいてい (usually) help signal habitual meaning.

• 彼はいつも早く起きます。 (kare wa itsumo hayaku okimasu.) He always gets up early.

• 日本語の授業は九時に始まります。 (Nihongo no jugyō wa kuji ni hajimarimasu.) Japanese class starts at nine.

• 犬は泳ぎます。 (inu wa oyogimasu.) Dogs swim. (generic statement)

Present for Scheduled or Near-Future Events

Because non-past covers future, it’s perfect for timetabled or decided plans—especially with time words.

• 明日、東京へ行きます。 (ashita, Tōkyō e ikimasu.) I will go to Tokyo tomorrow.

• 来週、会議があります。 (raishū, kaigi ga arimasu.) There’s a meeting next week.

• 次の電車は十分後に来ます。 (tsugi no densha wa jūppun go ni kimasu.) The next train comes in ten minutes.

If you want to emphasize intention, you can add plan markers (still non-past at heart):

• 明日、東京へ行くつもりです。 (ashita, Tōkyō e iku tsumori desu.) I intend to go to Tokyo tomorrow.

• 三時に出発する予定です。 (sanji ni shuppatsu suru yotei desu.) I am scheduled to depart at three.

Progressive and Resultative: 〜ている in the Present

Japanese uses 〜ている to express ongoing action (progressive), habitual action, and resulting state. Context picks the reading.

Ongoing action (true progressive)

• 今、昼ご飯を食べています。 (ima, hirugohan o tabete imasu.) I am eating lunch now.

• 彼は本を読んでいます。 (kare wa hon o yonde imasu.) He is reading a book.

Habitual with activity verbs

• 彼は毎日走っています。 (kare wa mainichi hashitte imasu.) He runs every day (habit).

• 私はITで働いています。 (watashi wa aiti de hataraite imasu.) I work in IT.

Resulting state with instantaneous verbs

Certain verbs denote a change that yields a state; 〜ている then means be in that state rather than be doing.

• 結婚しています。 (kekkon shite imasu.) I am married.

• 知っています。 (shitte imasu.) I know.

• 住んでいます。 (sunde imasu.) I live (reside).

Be careful: 分かります (wakarimasu) means I understand now (achievement), while 分かっています (wakatte imasu) implies I already know (and still know).

• 今、分かります。 (ima, wakarimasu.) I get it now.

• それは分かっています。 (sore wa wakatte imasu.) I (already) know that.

Existential “There Is/Are” in the Present: ある／いる

Use ある for inanimate things/events, いる for animate beings. These verbs are inherently present/stative.

• 机の上に本があります。 (tsukue no ue ni hon ga arimasu.) There is a book on the desk.

• 部屋に猫がいます。 (heya ni neko ga imasu.) There is a cat in the room.

• 午後に会議があります。 (gogo ni kaigi ga arimasu.) There is a meeting in the afternoon.

Negatives remain stative in the present:

• お金がありません。 (okane ga arimasen.) There isn’t any money.

• 誰もいません。 (dare mo imasen.) No one is here.

Present Copula with Nouns and Adjectives: だ／です

For nouns and na-adjectives, the present predicate uses the copula.

• 今日は忙しいです。 (kyō wa isogashii desu.) I am busy today.

• 彼は医者です。 (kare wa isha desu.) He is a doctor.

• この部屋は静かです。 (kono heya wa shizuka desu.) This room is quiet.

Plain forms drop to だ (nouns/na-adjectives) or omit a copula with i-adjectives:

• 彼は医者だ。 (kare wa isha da.) He’s a doctor.

• この本は高い。 (kono hon wa takai.) This book is expensive.

Forming the Present Negative

Present negatives are still present/non-past. They say something is not the case now, not (habitually) done, or won’t (as a decision/rule).

Polite negative

• 行きません。 (ikimasen.) I don’t go / won’t go.

• 食べません。 (tabemasen.) I don’t eat.

• 静かではありません。 (shizuka de wa arimasen.) It is not quiet.

• 学生ではありません。 (gakusei de wa arimasen.) I am not a student.

Plain negative

• 行かない。 (ikanai.) I don’t go.

• 食べない。 (tabenai.) I don’t eat.

• 静かじゃない。 (shizuka ja nai.) It isn’t quiet.

• 学生じゃない。 (gakusei ja nai.) (I’m) not a student.

A few common present-negative habits:

• 全然分かりません。 (zenzen wakarimasen.) I don’t understand at all.

• あまり食べません。 (amari tabemasen.) I don’t eat much.

Present Questions and Answers

Yes–no questions take sentence-final か in polite style (rising intonation in plain). Answers typically repeat the verb/copula.

• 今、時間がありますか。 (ima, jikan ga arimasu ka.) Do you have time now?
  　— はい、あります。 (hai, arimasu.) Yes, I do.
  　— いいえ、ありません。 (iie, arimasen.) No, I don’t.

• 明日、行きますか。 (ashita, ikimasu ka.) Will you go tomorrow?
  　— はい、行きます。 (hai, ikimasu.) Yes, I will.
  　— いいえ、行きません。 (iie, ikimasen.) No, I won’t.

Present with Time Expressions: Making the Time Clear

Because the non-past is broad, time phrases anchor meaning. They usually appear before the predicate and often omit に when the expression is broad (e.g., tomorrow, today morning), but take に for specific clock times/dates.

• 今日、図書館で勉強します。 (kyō, toshokan de benkyō shimasu.) I study at the library today.

• 三時に会います。 (sanji ni aimasu.) I meet at three.

• 毎日、家で料理します。 (mainichi, ie de ryōri shimasu.) I cook at home every day.

Present for Narration, Commentary, and Immediate Future

Japanese uses non-past for live commentary and imminent events (like English “here comes…”).

• あ、雨が降ります！ (a, ame ga furimasu!) Ah, it’s about to rain!

• ボールはゴールに入ります！ (bōru wa gōru ni hairimasu!) The ball goes into the goal!

Plain vs. 〜ている Right Now: What Sounds Natural

For actions happening at this moment, use 〜ている; the bare non-past sounds generic or scheduled.

• 今、会議しています。 (ima, kaigi shite imasu.) We’re in a meeting now.

• 今、会議します。 (ima, kaigi shimasu.) We will have a meeting now / (speaker decision).

Similarly, with motion verbs 行く／来る, 〜ている often means has gone / is away rather than is going:

• 田中さんは今、出かけています。 (Tanaka-san wa ima, dekakete imasu.) Mr./Ms. Tanaka has gone out (is out now).

Building the Present: Quick Conjugation Pointers (No Tables)

You don’t need case endings—just choose polite vs. plain, and (if negative) apply the standard negative.

• Ichidan (る-verbs) like 食べる → 食べます／食べない

  • 今、野菜を食べます。 (ima, yasai o tabemasu.) I’m eating vegetables now / I eat vegetables now.

  • 今日は肉を食べない。 (kyō wa niku o tabenai.) I won’t eat meat today.

• Godan (う-verbs) like 書く → 書きます／書かない

  • 毎日、日記を書きます。 (mainichi, nikki o kakimasu.) I write a diary every day.

  • 今日は書かない。 (kyō wa kakanai.) I won’t write today.

• Irregulars

  • する → します／しない
    運動します。 (undō shimasu.) I exercise. / 運動しない。 (undō shinai.) I don’t exercise.

  • 来る → 来ます（きます）／来ない（こない）
    明日、来ます。 (ashita, kimasu.) I’ll come tomorrow. / 来ない。 (konai.) I won’t come.

Present with Adjectives: Degrees and Polarity

i-adjectives carry present meaning as they are; na-adjectives use the copula.

• 今日は寒いです。 (kyō wa samui desu.) It is cold today.

• この店は静かです。 (kono mise wa shizuka desu.) This shop is quiet.

• 全然寒くないです。 (zenzen samuku nai desu.) It’s not cold at all.

Adverbs tune present intensity:

• とても忙しいです。 (totemo isogashii desu.) I’m very busy.

• 少し眠いです。 (sukoshi nemui desu.) I’m a little sleepy.

Present Statements with は vs. が (What You’re Saying About Now)

Use は to set the topic (often contrastive/habitual), が to present new or focused info.

• 私は朝、コーヒーを飲みます。 (watashi wa asa, kōhī o nomimasu.) As for me, I drink coffee in the morning.

• コーヒーが要ります。 (kōhī ga irimasu.) I need coffee (right now / fact)

Common Pitfalls in the Present

• Overusing plain non-past for “right now.” Prefer 〜ている for ongoing actions.
  ✗ 今、勉強します。 (sounds like I’ll study now / decision)
  ✓ 今、勉強しています。 I’m studying now.

• Mixing up 知っています and 分かります.
  知っています = know (state), 分かります = understand (achievement).

• Forgetting that non-past = future when context says so.
  来週、出張します。 (raishū, shucchō shimasu.) I’ll go on a business trip next week.

Putting It All Together: Natural Present/Non-Past Sentences

• 今、駅にいます。 (ima, eki ni imasu.) I’m at the station now.

• 彼は毎朝六時に起きます。 (kare wa mai-asa rokuji ni okimasu.) He gets up at six every morning.

• 来月から東京で働きます。 (raigetsu kara Tōkyō de hatarakimasu.) I will work in Tokyo starting next month.

• このアプリはよく落ちます。 (kono apuri wa yoku ochimasu.) This app often crashes.

• その件は知っています。 (sono ken wa shitte imasu.) I know about that matter.

• 今日は忙しくないです。 (kyō wa isogashiku nai desu.) I’m not busy today.

• 雨なので家にいます。 (ame na no de ie ni imasu.) Because it’s raining, I’m at home.

• 十分後に出発します。 (jūppun go ni shuppatsu shimasu.) We leave in ten minutes.

Past Tense in Japanese

Japanese marks past with the -ta form (plain) or -mashita (polite). This single “past” covers completed events, past states, background descriptions, experiences, and even regret/accident (with special helpers). English uses several past tenses; Japanese relies on the -た shape plus context, adverbs, and helper expressions to pin down the nuance.

• 昨日、映画を見ました。 (kinō, eiga o mimashita.) I watched a movie yesterday.

• 子どものころ、よく泳ぎました。 (kodomo no koro, yoku oyogimashita.) I often swam when I was a child.

• 雨だったので、出かけませんでした。 (ame datta no de, dekakemasen deshita.) Since it was rainy, I didn’t go out.

Plain vs. Polite Past: 〜た／〜ました

Every verb has a plain past (〜た) and a polite past (〜ました). The time is the same; only register changes.

• 行った。 (itta.) I went.

• 行きました。 (ikimashita.) I went.

• 食べた。 (tabeta.) I ate.

• 食べました。 (tabemashita.) I ate.

Use polite past in everyday respectful speech; use plain past with friends, in diaries, or inside larger grammatical structures (e.g., relative clauses).

How to Build the 〜た Form (without a table)

Japanese verbs fall into patterns for the plain past. Think of it as “sound changes” plus た/だ.

• る-verbs (ichidan): drop る, add た

  • 食べる → 食べた (taberu → tabeta) eat → ate

  • 見る → 見た (miru → mita) see → saw

• う-verbs (godan): final consonant changes + た/だ

  • う・つ・る → った

    • 買う → 買った (kau → katta) buy → bought

    • 待つ → 待った (matsu → matta) wait → waited

    • 撮る → 撮った (toru → totta) take (a photo) → took

  • ぶ・む・ぬ → んだ

    • 遊ぶ → 遊んだ (asobu → asonda) play → played

    • 飲む → 飲んだ (nomu → nonda) drink → drank

    • 死ぬ → 死んだ (shinu → shinda) die → died

  • く → いた / ぐ → いだ

    • 書く → 書いた (kaku → kaita) write → wrote

    • 泳ぐ → 泳いだ (oyogu → oyoida) swim → swam

  • す → した

    • 話す → 話した (hanasu → hanashita) speak → spoke

• Irregular:

  • する → した (suru → shita) do → did

  • 来る → 来た (kuru → kita) come → came

The polite past is always ます → ました regardless of verb class:

• 書きます → 書きました (kakimasu → kakimashita) write → wrote.

Past Negatives

Past negatives say something was not done/true.

• 行きませんでした。 (ikimasen deshita.) I didn’t go.

• 行かなかった。 (ikanakatta.) I didn’t go.

• 食べませんでした。 (tabemasen deshita.) I didn’t eat.

• 食べなかった。 (tabenakatta.) I didn’t eat.

With adjectives and copula, see below.

Past with Adjectives and the Copula

i-adjectives (〜い)

• 高かった。／高かったです。 (takakatta. / takakatta desu.) It was expensive.

• 高くなかった。／高くありませんでした。 (takaku nakatta. / takaku arimasen deshita.) It wasn’t expensive.

The irregular いい becomes よかった／よくなかった:

• よかったです。 (yokatta desu.) It was good.

• よくなかったです。 (yoku nakatta desu.) It wasn’t good.

na-adjectives & nouns (copula)

• 静かだった。／静かでした。 (shizuka datta. / shizuka deshita.) It was quiet.

• 静かじゃなかった。／静かではありませんでした。 (shizuka ja nakatta. / shizuka de wa arimasen deshita.) It wasn’t quiet.

• 学生だった。／学生でした。 (gakusei datta. / gakusei deshita.) [He/She] was a student.

• 学生じゃなかった。 (gakusei ja nakatta.) [He/She] wasn’t a student.

Past Existence: いた／あった

いる (animate) → いた／いなかった; ある (inanimate) → あった／なかった.

• 部屋に猫がいた。 (heya ni neko ga ita.) There was a cat in the room.

• 机の上に本があった。 (tsukue no ue ni hon ga atta.) There was a book on the desk.

• 誰もいなかった。 (dare mo inakatta.) No one was there.

• お金がなかった。 (okane ga nakatta.) There was no money.

Polite: いました／いませんでした, ありました／ありませんでした.

〜ていた for Past Progressive, Habitual, and Background

〜ている in the past (〜ていた) means was doing, used to do, or was in the state of. Context decides.

• そのとき、昼ご飯を食べていました。 (sono toki, hirugohan o tabete imashita.) At that time, I was eating lunch.

• 子どものころ、よくゲームをしていた。 (kodomo no koro, yoku gēmu o shite ita.) When I was a kid, I used to play games a lot.

• 彼はここに住んでいました。 (kare wa koko ni sunde imashita.) He used to live here.

In storytelling, 〜ていた paints background; 〜た marks events that advance the story.

• 雨が降っていた。私は傘をさした。 (ame ga futte ita. watashi wa kasa o sashita.) It was raining. I opened my umbrella.

Resultant States in the Past: 〜ていた vs. 〜た

Some “instant” verbs give a state with 〜ていた:

• 結婚していた。 (kekkon shite ita.) Was married (at that time).

• 知っていた。 (shitte ita.) Knew (already).

• 壊れていた。 (kowarete ita.) Was broken.

While 〜た can indicate event completion:

• 結婚した。 (kekkon shita.) Got married (event).

• 分かった。 (wakatta.) I understood / got it (moment of realization).

“Just Did,” “After Doing,” “Left As Is”: 〜たところ／〜たばかり／〜てから／〜たまま

• 〜たところ: just now did (immediacy or discovery)
  今、終わったところです。 (ima, owatta tokoro desu.) I’ve just finished.

• 〜たばかり: not long since finished (recency)
  来たばかりです。 (kita bakari desu.) I just arrived.

• 〜てから／〜た後で: after doing
  食べてから出かけました。 (tabete kara dekakemashita.) I went out after eating.
  勉強した後で寝ました。 (benkyō shita ato de nemashita.) I slept after studying.

• 〜たまま: left as-is
  電気をつけたまま寝てしまった。 (denki o tsuketa mama nete shimatta.) I fell asleep with the light on.

Completion, Regret, Accident: 〜てしまった (＝〜ちゃった)

〜てしまった marks complete finishing or unfortunate/accidental results (tone depends on context).

• 宿題を全部やってしまった。 (shukudai o zenbu yatte shimatta.) I finished all the homework.

• 財布をなくしてしまった。 (saifu o nakushite shimatta.) I (unfortunately) lost my wallet.

Casual contraction: 〜ちゃった／〜じゃった

• 食べちゃった。 (tabechatta.) I ate it (oops / already / completely).

Experiential “Have (Ever) Done”: 〜たことがある／ない

This expresses life experience (not a specific time).

• 日本へ行ったことがあります。 (Nihon e itta koto ga arimasu.) I have been to Japan (at least once).

• 寿司を食べたことがありません。 (sushi o tabeta koto ga arimasen.) I have never eaten sushi.

Add 昔／以前 to make a time frame clear:

• 昔、見たことがあります。 (mukashi, mita koto ga arimasu.) I’ve seen it before (long ago).

Sequencing Past Events: 〜て, 〜てから, それから

Chain actions with 〜て for smooth narrative; それから adds “and then.”

• 起きて、顔を洗って、出かけました。 (okite, kao o aratte, dekakemashita.) I got up, washed my face, and went out.

• 会ってから話しました。 (atte kara hanashimashita.) We talked after meeting.

• 駅に着きました。それから、タクシーに乗りました。 (eki ni tsukimashita. sorekara, takushī ni norimashita.) I arrived at the station. Then I took a taxi.

Past Conditionals and Discovery: 〜たら／〜と／〜ば in the Past

• 〜たら can mean “when/after” (realized result) or “if (counterfactual).”
  家に帰ったら、雨だった。 (ie ni kaettara, ame datta.) When I got home, it was raining (to my discovery).
  もし時間があったら、行きました。 (moshi jikan ga attara, ikimashita.) If I had had time, I would have gone.

• 〜と (when/as soon as → discovery or habitual):
  ドアを開けると、猫がいた。 (doa o akeru to, neko ga ita.) When I opened the door, there was a cat.

• 〜ば forms also work, but 〜たら is the most common for concrete past.

Reported Speech and Tense: 〜と言った／〜と聞いた

Japanese does not automatically backshift tense in quotes; the tense inside “…” reflects the original statement’s time reference.

• 彼は「明日行きます」と言いました。 (kare wa “ashita ikimasu” to iimashita.) He said, “I’ll go tomorrow.”

• 彼は明日行くと言いました。 (kare wa ashita iku to iimashita.) He said (that) he’ll go tomorrow.

• 彼女は「昨日行きました」と言った。 (kanojo wa “kinō ikimashita” to itta.) She said, “I went yesterday.”

Past Questions and Answers

• 昨日、何をしましたか。 (kinō, nani o shimashita ka.) What did you do yesterday?
  　— 友達に会いました。 (tomodachi ni aimashita.) I met a friend.

• その映画を見た？ (sono eiga o mita?) Did you watch that movie?
  　— うん、見た。 (un, mita.) Yeah, I did.

Past with Aspectual Nuance: “Started,” “Kept,” “Stopped”

These are still “past,” but they add aspect (the way the event unfolds):

• 〜始めた (began to):
  雨が降り始めた。 (ame ga furi-hajimeta.) It started to rain.

• 〜続けた (kept doing):
  練習し続けた。 (renshū shi-tsudzuketa.) I kept practicing.

• 〜終わった (finished doing):
  仕事をやり終わった。 (shigoto o yari-owatta.) I finished the work.

Narrative Style: 〜た for Events, 〜ていた for Scene

In written stories, 〜た ticks the plot forward; 〜ていた paints the scene.

• 空は暗かった。風が吹いていた。私は歩き出した。 (sora wa kurakatta. kaze ga fuite ita. watashi wa aruki-dashita.) The sky was dark. The wind was blowing. I started walking.

Common Pitfalls with the Past

• Using 今、〜た for immediate “I’m doing now.” Prefer 〜ている for true present progressive.
  ✗ 今、食べた。 (sounds like I just ate)
  ✓ 今、食べています。 (ima, tabete imasu.) I am eating now.

• Confusing 分かった and 知っている／知っていた.
  分かった = I got it (at that moment).
  知っていた = I already knew (state in the past).
  知っている = I know (now).

• Overusing でした with i-adjectives. Plain i-adjectives don’t take です in the dictionary form, but in polite speech past i-adjectives can be followed by です (高かったです) as a polite sentence ending—not as a copula attached to the adjective.

Putting It All Together: Natural Past Sentences

• 昨日、友達と夕食を食べました。 (kinō, tomodachi to yūshoku o tabemashita.) I had dinner with a friend yesterday.

• 学生のとき、京都に住んでいました。 (gakusei no toki, Kyōto ni sunde imashita.) When I was a student, I lived in Kyoto.

• 駅に着いたら、雨だった。 (eki ni tsuitara, ame datta.) When I arrived at the station, it was raining.

• 会議は三時に始まりました。 (kaigi wa sanji ni hajimarimashita.) The meeting started at three.

• それはもう知っていました。 (sore wa mō shitte imashita.) I already knew that.

• すぐに返信するつもりだったが、忘れてしまった。 (sugu ni henshin suru tsumori datta ga, wasurete shimatta.) I meant to reply right away, but I forgot (unfortunately).

• 海外に行ったことがありますか。 (kaigai ni itta koto ga arimasu ka.) Have you ever been abroad?

• はい、二年前に行きました。 (hai, ni-nen mae ni ikimashita.) Yes, I went two years ago.

Quick Checklist for the Japanese Past

• Use 〜た／〜ました for completed events and past states.

• Use 〜なかった／〜ませんでした for past negatives.

• i-adj: 〜かった／〜くなかった; na-adj/nouns: だった／じゃなかった (polite でした／ではありませんでした).

• いる／ある → いた／あった (negatives いなかった／なかった).

• Choose 〜ていた for was doing / used to / was in the state of; 〜た for event completion.

• For “just did,” “after doing,” “left as is,” use 〜たところ／〜たばかり／〜てから／〜たまま.

• For completion/regret, use 〜てしまった (→ 〜ちゃった).

• For life experience, use 〜たことがある／ない.

• In narratives, 〜た advances the plot; 〜ていた paints the background.

• Remember: reported speech keeps its own tense; Japanese doesn’t automatically backshift.

Future Tense in Japanese

Japanese doesn’t have a dedicated future tense. Instead, it uses the non-past (the same form that also covers the present) plus time words, modal expressions, and aspectual helpers to talk about future plans, intentions, schedules, predictions, and inevitabilities.

• 明日、東京へ行きます。 (ashita, Tōkyō e ikimasu.) I will go to Tokyo tomorrow.

• 来週、試験があります。 (raishū, shiken ga arimasu.) There will be an exam next week.

• すぐ雨が降ります。 (sugu ame ga furimasu.) It’s about to rain / It will rain soon.

Context (e.g., 明日, 来週, すぐ) pushes the non-past into future meaning.

Non-Past for Schedules, Timetables, and Promises

The non-past is perfect for fixed future events such as timetables, scheduled meetings, and established plans.

• 次の電車は十分後に来ます。 (tsugi no densha wa jūppun go ni kimasu.) The next train comes in ten minutes.

• 会議は三時に始まります。 (kaigi wa san-ji ni hajimarimasu.) The meeting starts at 3.

• 来月から働きます。 (raigetsu kara hatarakimasu.) I’ll start working next month.

• 必ず連絡します。 (kanarazu renraku shimasu.) I will contact you for sure.

Saying What You Intend to Do: つもり / 予定

Two core nouns express intention and schedule.

• 〜つもり（だ／です） = intention/plan from the speaker’s viewpoint

  • 来年留学するつもりです。 (rainen ryūgaku suru tsumori desu.) I intend to study abroad next year.

  • 行かないつもりです。 (ikanai tsumori desu.) I plan not to go.

• 〜予定（だ／です） = scheduled/arranged (often externally fixed)

  • 明日出発する予定です。 (ashita shuppatsu suru yotei desu.) I am scheduled to depart tomorrow.

  • 会議は一時間の予定です。 (kaigi wa ichi-jikan no yotei desu.) The meeting is planned for one hour.

Nuance: つもり highlights your intention; 予定 highlights a set plan or timetable.

Deciding vs. Being Decided: ことにする / ことになる

• 〜ことにする = “decide to do” (your decision)

  • 毎朝走ることにしました。 (mai-asa hashiru koto ni shimashita.) I’ve decided I will run every morning.

• 〜ことになる = “it will be decided (that) / end up (that)” (external decision/result)

  • 四月から大阪に転勤することになりました。 (shigatsu kara Ōsaka ni tenkin suru koto ni narimashita.) It has been decided I’ll transfer to Osaka from April.

Both point to future outcomes, but the agent differs.

“Let’s / I’ll” Right Now: The Volitional

The volitional expresses spontaneous decisions, suggestions, and offers.

• 行こう。 (ikō.) Let’s go / I’ll go.

• 手伝いましょうか。 (tetsudai mashō ka.) Shall I help?

• あとで連絡しようと思います。 (ato de renraku shiyō to omoimasu.) I think I’ll get in touch later.

Adding と思う softens it into I think I will.

Predictions and Probability: でしょう・だろう・かもしれない

Use these when you predict or estimate the future.

• 明日は寒いでしょう。 (ashita wa samui deshō.) It will probably be cold tomorrow.

• 彼は来るだろう。 (kare wa kuru darō.) He’ll likely come.

• 雨が降るかもしれません。 (ame ga furu kamoshiremasen.) It might rain.

• もうすぐ終わるはずです。 (mōsugu owaru hazu desu.) It should finish soon (expected).

でしょう／だろう = high confidence; かもしれない = possibility; はず = expectation based on reasons.

“About to,” “Looks Like It Will”: ところだ・そうだ

• これから〜ところだ = about to do

  • これから出発するところです。 (kore kara shuppatsu suru tokoro desu.) We’re just about to depart.

• （見た目で）〜そうだ = it looks like it will ~

  • 雨が降りそうです。 (ame ga furi-sō desu.) It looks like it’s going to rain.

  • 倒れそうだ。 (taore-sō da.) It looks about to fall.

(Contrast with hearsay 〜そうだ I hear that ~, which uses a different construction.)

Doing in Advance for a Future Need: 〜ておく

〜ておく marks preparation for a future point.

• 切符を買っておきます。 (kippu o katte okimasu.) I’ll buy the tickets in advance.

• 資料を読んでおいてください。 (shiryō o yonde oite kudasai.) Please read the materials beforehand.

Gradual Change into the Future: 〜ていく / 〜ようになる

• 〜ていく indicates movement toward the future or a process that will continue.

  • 日本語の勉強を続けていきます。 (Nihongo no benkyō o tsudzukete ikimasu.) I’ll keep studying Japanese (from now on).

  • 人口が減っていくでしょう。 (jinkō ga hette iku deshō.) The population will keep decreasing.

• 〜ようになる indicates a new ability/habit developing.

  • もっと話せるようになります。 (motto hanaseru yō ni narimasu.) I will come to be able to speak more (become able).

Deadlines, Sequences, and Conditionals for the Future

These structures anchor future time relationships.

• までに (by, before deadline):

  • 金曜日までに提出します。 (kin’yōbi made ni teishutsu shimasu.) I’ll submit by Friday.

• 〜てから／〜た後で (after doing):

  • 宿題を終えてから出かけます。 (shukudai o oete kara dekakemasu.) I’ll go out after I finish my homework.

• 〜たら／〜ば／〜と for future conditions:

  • 雨が降ったら、家にいます。 (ame ga futtara, ie ni imasu.) If it rains, I’ll stay home.

  • 時間があれば、行きます。 (jikan ga areba, ikimasu.) If I have time, I’ll go.

  • 春になると、桜が咲きます。 (haru ni naru to, sakura ga sakimasu.) When spring comes, the cherries bloom.

Saying You Won’t Do Something (Future Negatives)

Japanese uses the non-past negative to mean won’t in the appropriate context.

• 今日は行きません。 (kyō wa ikimasen.) I won’t go today.

• もう吸わないつもりです。 (mō suwanai tsumori desu.) I plan not to smoke anymore.

• たぶん参加しないでしょう。 (tabun sanka shinai deshō.) I probably won’t participate.

A very formal/old-fashioned 〜まい also exists:

• 遅れまい。 (okuremai.) I will not be late. (bookish)

Asking About Someone’s Future Plans

Polite non-past questions can straightforwardly ask about the future.

• 来週、来ますか。 (raishū, kimasu ka.) Will you come next week?

• 明日は何をする予定ですか。 (ashita wa nani o suru yotei desu ka.) What are you scheduled to do tomorrow?

• 夏に旅行するつもりですか。 (natsu ni ryokō suru tsumori desu ka.) Do you intend to travel in summer?

Formal/Business “We Will”: いたします・させていただく

In customer service and business writing, future commitments are often phrased with humble forms.

• 後ほどご連絡いたします。 (nochihodo go-renraku itashimasu.) We will contact you later.

• こちらで対応させていただきます。 (kochira de taiō sasete itadakimasu.) Allow us to handle it (we will handle it).

• 発送は明日行います。 (hassō wa ashita okonaimasu.) Shipping will be carried out tomorrow.

Common Future-Leaning Time Expressions

These adverbs and phrases strongly cue a future reading.

• これから from now; shortly: これから会議が始まります。 (kore kara kaigi ga hajimarimasu.) The meeting will start now.

• いまから right now (from this moment): いまから出ます。 (ima kara demasu.) I’m heading out now.

• もうすぐ very soon: もうすぐ到着します。 (mōsugu tōchaku shimasu.) We’ll arrive very soon.

• やがて before long: やがて夜になります。 (yagate yoru ni narimasu.) It will be night before long.

• 後で later: 後で電話します。 (ato de denwa shimasu.) I’ll call later.

Pitfalls to Avoid

• Using 〜ています for a simple future.
  今から行きます。 (ima kara ikimasu.) I’ll go now. (not 行っています here)

• Forgetting a time expression, leaving the non-past ambiguous:
  行きます。 (ikimasu.) could be I go (habitually) or I will go; add context like 明日 or これから.

• Confusing intention with prediction.
  行くつもりです = I intend to go.
  行くでしょう = He/It will probably go/happen. (speaker prediction)

• はず vs. 予定 vs. つもり:
  はず = logical expectation; 予定 = scheduled; つもり = personal intent.

Putting It All Together: Natural Future-Oriented Sentences

• 明日の朝、六時に起きます。 (ashita no asa, roku-ji ni okimasu.) I’ll get up at six tomorrow morning.

• 仕事の後で、友達に会います。 (shigoto no ato de, tomodachi ni aimasu.) I’ll meet a friend after work.

• 来年はもっと旅行するつもりです。 (rainen wa motto ryokō suru tsumori desu.) I intend to travel more next year.

• 確認でき次第、ご連絡いたします。 (kakunin deki shidai, go-renraku itashimasu.) We will contact you as soon as we can confirm.

• 雨が降りそうなので、早めに出発します。 (ame ga furi-sō na no de, hayame ni shuppatsu shimasu.) Since it looks like rain, we’ll depart early.

• 結果によっては、計画を変更することになります。 (kekka ni yotte wa, keikaku o henkō suru koto ni narimasu.) Depending on the results, it will be decided that we change the plan.

• もうすぐ締め切りなので、今夜は徹夜するかもしれません。 (mōsugu shimekiri na no de, kon’ya wa tetsuya suru kamoshiremasen.) The deadline is soon, so I might pull an all-nighter tonight.

Imperatives in Japanese

Japanese doesn’t have just one “imperative.” Instead, it offers a spectrum—from very direct 命令形 (meireikei) to soft, polite requests like 〜てください, formal signage like 〜こと, and honorific forms like お／ご〜ください. Your choice signals urgency, politeness, social distance, and who benefits from the action. This page maps the options, when to use them, and the nuance each carries.

The Bare Imperative (命令形): Strong, Urgent, or Context-Bound

The dictionary “imperative” is short, sharp, and potentially brusque. You’ll hear it in sports, military, manga/anime tough talk, or emergency situations—and see it in slogans or short commands.

• 走れ！ (hashire!) Run!

• 急げ！ (isoge!) Hurry!

• 黙れ！ (damare!) Be quiet!

• 来い！ (koi!) Come!

• 待て！ (mate!) Wait! (also to dogs)

It’s grammatically correct but socially strong. With superiors, strangers, or customers, avoid it unless the situation is genuinely urgent (e.g., safety).

How the Bare Imperative Is Formed (no tables needed)

• Godan (u-verbs): change the final u-row syllable to the e-row.
  書く → 書け (kaku → kake) Write!
  急ぐ → 急げ (isogu → isoge) Hurry!
  待つ → 待て (matsu → mate) Wait!
  読む → 読め (yomu → yome) Read!
  死ぬ → 死ね (shinu → shine) Die! (extremely strong—avoid)

• Ichidan (ru-verbs): drop る, add ろ (plain); よ exists but is bookish.
  食べる → 食べろ／食べよ (taberu → tabero/tabeyo) Eat!

• Irregulars:
  する → しろ／せよ (suru → shiro/seyo) Do it! (せよ is formal/literary)
  来る → 来い (kuru → koi) Come!

The Prohibitive (禁止形): 〜な “Don’t …”

Attach な to the dictionary form to forbid something bluntly.

• 入るな。 (hairu na.) Do not enter.

• 触るな。 (sawaru na.) Don’t touch.

• 騒ぐな。 (sawagu na.) Don’t make noise.

On signs or rules you’ll also meet 〜ないこと or noun phrases (see below) for a less barked feel.

Polite Requests: 〜てください (Default in Everyday Life)

This is the workhorse for polite, natural requests and instructions.

• ドアを閉めてください。 (doa o shimete kudasai.) Please close the door.

• ゆっくり話してください。 (yukkuri hanashite kudasai.) Please speak slowly.

• こちらにお名前を書いてください。 (kochira ni o-namae o kaite kudasai.) Please write your name here.

Negative request:

• ここで写真を撮らないでください。 (koko de shashin o toranaide kudasai.) Please don’t take photos here.

Casual everyday speech often trims to 〜て:

• ちょっと待って。 (chotto matte.) Hang on a sec.

Semi-Imperative 〜なさい: Firm but Not Rude (Parent/Teacher Tone)

Attach なさい to the ます-stem. It’s stronger than 〜てください, softer than 命令形, and common from parents/teachers to children/students.

• 早く起きなさい。 (hayaku okinasai.) Get up quickly.

• 宿題をやりなさい。 (shukudai o yari nasai.) Do your homework.

• 静かにしなさい。 (shizuka ni shinasai.) Be quiet.

Adding よ can sound scolding/insistent:

• ちゃんと聞きなさいよ。 (chanto kiki nasai yo.) Listen properly, okay?

There’s no direct negative ×〜なさい; use 〜てはいけません or 〜ないでください for prohibitions.

“Do it for me”: 〜てくれ／〜てください／〜てもらえますか

Requests with くれる／もらう express benefit to the speaker. They range from blunt to very polite.

• 見せてくれ。 (misete kure.) Show me (that). (blunt/male)

• 見せてください。 (misete kudasai.) Please show me (that). (polite)

• 見せてもらえますか。 (misete moraemasu ka.) Could I have a look? (polite, indirect)

Softening tricks: add ちょっと, すみませんが, or make it a question:

• すみませんが、もう一度言ってください。 (sumimasen ga, mō ichido itte kudasai.) Excuse me, please say it once more.

• これ、手伝ってくれない？ (kore, tetsudatte kurenai?) Can you help me with this? (casual/soft)

Honorific Requests: お／ご〜ください (Service Politeness)

Attach お (native verbs) or ご (Sino-Japanese verbal nouns) to the stem for polished, public-facing instructions.

• お待ちください。 (o-machi kudasai.) Please wait.

• お入りください。 (o-hairi kudasai.) Please come in.

• ご記入ください。 (go-kiniyū kudasai.) Please fill this in.

• ご利用ください。 (go-riyō kudasai.) Please use (this service).

Very polite business variants:

• 少々お待ちくださいませ。 (shōshō o-machi kudasaimase.) Please wait a moment.

• ご協力くださいますようお願いいたします。 (go-kyōryoku kudasaimasu yō onegai itashimasu.) We kindly ask for your cooperation.

Polite Prohibitions: 〜てはいけません／〜てはだめです／ご遠慮ください

When you must forbid something politely:

• ここで喫煙してはいけません。 (koko de kitsuen shite wa ikemasen.) You must not smoke here. (formal)

• ここで携帯を使ってはだめです。 (koko de keitai o tsukatte wa dame desu.) You can’t use your phone here. (neutral)

• 撮影はご遠慮ください。 (satsuei wa go-enryo kudasai.) Please refrain from photography. (very polite)

Casual “please don’t …”:

• 触らないで。 (sawaranaide.) Don’t touch (it).

• 遅れないでね。 (okurenaide ne.) Don’t be late, okay?

Written Rules and Signs: 〜こと／〜ないこと／名詞＋禁止

Manuals, school rules, or notices often use こと to sound impersonal and rule-like.

• 時間を守ること。 (jikan o mamoru koto.) Be punctual.

• 私語をしないこと。 (shigo o shinai koto.) No chatting.

• 立入禁止。 (tachiiri kinshi.) No entry.

• 飲食禁止。 (inshoku kinshi.) No eating or drinking.

Classical/archaism in formal signage: 〜べからず

• ごみを捨つべからず。 (gomi o sutsu bekarazu.) Do not litter. (stiff/old-fashioned)

“Make Sure to … / Try to …”: 〜ようにしてください／〜ないように

These politely set a target behavior rather than a raw command.

• 遅れないようにしてください。 (okurenai yō ni shite kudasai.) Please make sure not to be late.

• 安全に注意するように。 (anzen ni chūi suru yō ni.) Be sure to pay attention to safety. (written/oral directive)

• 騒がないようにお願いします。 (sawaganai yō ni onegai shimasu.) Please refrain from making noise.

Requests About Permission: 〜てもいいですか／〜させてください

These aren’t commands, but they manage action in a future-oriented way.

• 写真を撮ってもいいですか。 (shashin o totte mo ii desu ka.) May I take a photo?

• 少し説明させてください。 (sukoshi setsumei sasete kudasai.) Please allow me to explain briefly.

If you want someone to let you do something (strong):

• これをやらせてくれ。 (kore o yarasete kure.) Let me do this. (blunt)

• これをやらせていただけますか。 (kore o yarasete itadakemasu ka.) May I be allowed to do this? (polite)

Particles and Add-Ons that Tune the Tone

• よ adds assertiveness/insistence:
  急いでくださいよ。 (isoide kudasai yo.) Do hurry, please.

• ね seeks agreement/softens:
  静かにしてね。 (shizuka ni shite ne.) Keep it down, okay?

• ちょっと and すみませんが soften requests:
  ちょっと見せてください。 (chotto misete kudasai.) Could you show me for a sec?
  すみませんが、お名前をお願いします。 (sumimasen ga, o-namae o onegai shimasu.) Excuse me, your name please.

Choosing the Right Strength: A Practical Scale

From strongest to softest (context matters):

1. 命令形: 来い！ (koi!) Come!

2. 禁止形: 入るな。 (hairu na.) Don’t enter.

3. 〜なさい: 座りなさい。 (suwari nasai.) Sit down.

4. 〜てくれ: 手伝ってくれ。 (tetsudatte kure.) Help me.

5. 〜てください: 手伝ってください。 (tetsudatte kudasai.) Please help.

6. お／ご〜ください: ご協力ください。 (go-kyōryoku kudasai.) Your cooperation, please.

7. 〜てもらえますか／〜ていただけますか: 説明していただけますか。 (setsumei shite itadakemasu ka.) Could you explain?

8. 〜ようにお願いします: 静かにするようにお願いします。 (shizuka ni suru yō ni onegai shimasu.) Please keep it quiet.

Imperatives in Recipes, Manuals, and Live Instructions

• Recipes/manuals often use dictionary form or 〜てください for steps:
  玉ねぎを切る。 (tamanegi o kiru.) Cut the onion.
  よく混ぜてください。 (yoku mazete kudasai.) Mix well.

• Live directions mix soft commands and honorifics:
  こちらへお進みください。 (kochira e o-susumi kudasai.) Please proceed this way.
  足元にご注意ください。 (ashimoto ni go-chūi kudasai.) Please watch your step.

When the Bare Imperative Is Natural (and When It Isn’t)

Natural uses: emergencies, sports coaching, short warnings, to pets/children (depending on relationship), fictional tough talk.

• 危ない！下がれ！ (abunai! sagare!) Danger! Get back!

• もっと速く走れ！ (motto hayaku hashire!) Run faster!

Avoid with customers, superiors, or strangers—switch to 〜てください／お〜ください／〜ていただけますか.

Negative Imperatives Recap

Blunt ban: 辞書形＋な

• 捨てるな。 (suteru na.) Don’t throw it away.

Polite/neutral bans:

• ここで捨てないでください。 (koko de sutenai de kudasai.) Please don’t throw it away here.

• ここで捨ててはいけません。 (koko de sutete wa ikemasen.) You mustn’t throw it away here.

• ゴミの持ち込みはご遠慮ください。 (gomi no mochi-komi wa go-enryo kudasai.) Please refrain from bringing in trash.

Classic and Set Phrases Worth Knowing

• お待ちください。 (o-machi kudasai.) Please wait.

• おかけください。 (o-kake kudasai.) Please have a seat.

• お入りください。 (o-hairi kudasai.) Please come in.

• お手を触れないでください。 (o-te o furenaide kudasai.) Please do not touch.

• ご理解ください。 (go-rikai kudasai.) Please understand.

• ご協力をお願いします。 (go-kyōryoku o onegai shimasu.) We ask for your cooperation.

Mini Contrast: Same Content, Different Force

• 窓を開けろ。 (mado o akero.) Open the window. (blunt)

• 窓を開けなさい。 (mado o ake nasai.) Open the window. (firm/parental)

• 窓を開けてくれ。 (mado o akete kure.) Open the window (for me). (direct/male)

• 窓を開けてください。 (mado o akete kudasai.) Please open the window. (polite)

• 窓をお開けください。 (mado o o-ake kudasai.) Kindly open the window. (refined)

• 窓を開けてもらえますか。 (mado o akete moraemasu ka.) Could you open the window? (polite question)

• 窓は開けないでください。 (mado wa akenaide kudasai.) Please don’t open the window. (polite prohibition)

Common Pitfalls (and Easy Fixes)

• Using 命令形 with strangers: Switch to 〜てください or お／ご〜ください.
  ✗ 荷物を見せろ。
  ✓ 荷物を見せてください。 (nimotsu o misete kudasai.) Please show me your bag.

• Prohibition phrased too softly for rules: Use 〜てはいけません or ご遠慮ください on signage.
  ✗ ここで吸わないでね。
  ✓ ここで喫煙してはいけません。 (koko de kitsuen shite wa ikemasen.) Smoking is not permitted here.

• Forgetting benefit marking: If the action helps you, 〜てくれ／〜てください／〜てもらえますか feels more natural than a bare command.

Practice Sentences (natural, real-world tonality)

• こちらにお並びください。 (kochira ni o-narabi kudasai.) Please line up here.

• 携帯電話の電源をお切りください。 (keitai denwa no dengen o o-kiri kudasai.) Please turn off your mobile phone.

• 危ないから近寄るな。 (abunai kara chikayoru na.) It’s dangerous—don’t come closer.

• この書類にご署名ください。 (kono shorui ni go-shomei kudasai.) Please sign this document.

• 忘れ物をしないようにしてください。 (wasuremono o shinai yō ni shite kudasai.) Please make sure not to forget your belongings.

• すみません、道を教えていただけますか。 (sumimasen, michi o oshiete itadakemasu ka.) Excuse me, could you tell me the way?

• そこ、動くな！ (soko, ugoku na!) You there, don’t move!

• それ、見せて。 (sore, misete.) Let me see that. (casual)

• 早めにご返信ください。 (hayame ni go-henshin kudasai.) Please reply at your earliest convenience.

• 安全第一で作業してください。 (anzen daiichi de sagyō shite kudasai.) Please work with safety first in mind.

Passives in Japanese

Japanese passives do far more than “flip” subject and object. Besides the neutral “be V-ed,” Japanese has an adversative/affected passive that says something happened to someone’s detriment or involvement—even when the verb is intransitive. The same passive shape (〜(r)areru) can also act as a respectful (honorific) form in the right context. Mastering passives means mastering both form and stance.

What the Passive Does (Three Core Readings)

1. Direct (neutral) passive — the patient becomes subject: A book was read (by X).
   本が読まれた。 (hon ga yomareta.) The book was read.

2. Adversative / affected passive — someone is affected (often negatively) by an action:
   友達にケーキを食べられた。 (tomodachi ni kēki o taberareta.) My friend ate the cake on me (to my regret).

3. Honorific passive — a respectful way to describe the subject’s action (they themselves act):
   先生はもうお帰りになられました。 (sensei wa mō o-kaeri ni nararemashita.) The teacher has already returned (honorific).

Context and participants decide which reading is intended.

How to Form the Passive (Morphology at a glance, no table)

• Ichidan (る-verbs): stem + られる
  食べる → 食べられる（食べられた） (taberu → taberareru (taberareta)) to be eaten / was eaten
  見る → 見られる（見られた） (miru → mirareru (mirareta)) to be seen / was seen

• Godan (う-verbs): final u → a + れる (phonological adjustments)
  書く → 書かれる（書かれた） (kaku → kakareru (kakareta)) to be written / was written
  読む → 読まれる（読まれた） (yomu → yomareru (yomareta)) to be read / was read
  話す → 話される（話された） (hanasu → hanasareru (hanasareta)) to be spoken / was spoken
  泳ぐ → 泳がれる (oyogu → oyogareru) to be swum
  行く → 行かれる (iku → ikareru) to be gone (to)

• Irregular
  する → される（された） (suru → sareru (sareta)) to be done / was done
  来る → 来られる（来られた） (kuru → korareru (korareta)) to be come / was come

Polite past: 〜られました／〜れました (depending on class).
説明されました。 (setsumei saremashita.) It was explained.

Direct Passive with Transitive Verbs

This is the straightforward “be V-ed” passive, often used in objective writing (news, manuals) or when the agent is unknown/irrelevant.

• 本が多くの人に読まれています。 (hon ga ōku no hito ni yomarete imasu.) The book is being read by many people.

• 新しい橋が建設会社によって建てられた。 (atarashii hashi ga kensetsu gaisha ni yotte taterareta.) A new bridge was built by a construction company.

• 会議は三時に始められます。 (kaigi wa sanji ni hajimeraremasu.) The meeting is started at three.

Agent marking: colloquial に, formal によって. Use によって more readily in written/objective styles and when the agent is an institution, method, or cause.

The Adversative / Affected Passive (被害受身)

Japanese uniquely lets you make the affected person the subject, even if they didn’t “undergo” the verb directly. The nuance is often negative (annoyance, inconvenience), but can be neutral “involved/affected.”

• 友達にケーキを食べられた。 (tomodachi ni kēki o taberareta.) My friend ate the cake on me (I’m put out).

• 隣の人に夜中まで騒がれた。 (tonari no hito ni yonaka made sawagareta.) The neighbor made noise on me until midnight.

• 雨に降られた。 (ame ni furareta.) I got rained on.

• 兄に死なれた。 (ani ni shinareta.) My older brother died on me (I suffered from it).

Structure: [Affected person = subject] + [Agent = に] + [object (if any) + を] + Passive verb.
Notice that even weather or intransitives can appear as the “agent/source” with に.

Passive of Intransitives—Why It Works

In English, only transitives typically passivize. Japanese can passivize many intransitives to express adversity/involvement:

• 子どもに走られた。 (kodomo ni hashirareta.) The kid ran (around) on me (caused me trouble).

• 彼に来られて困った。 (kare ni korarete komatta.) He came (here) on me and it was a problem.

You aren’t saying “he was come”; you’re saying I was affected by his coming.

Agentless Passives and Politeness

Leaving out the agent is common and often preferred—objective, polite, non-accusatory:

• ミスが確認されました。 (misu ga kakunin saremashita.) An error has been confirmed.

• 個人情報は慎重に扱われます。 (kojin jōhō wa shinchō ni atsukawaremasu.) Personal data is handled carefully.

This style mirrors impersonal English (It has been decided…) but is even more natural in Japanese.

に vs. によって (Choosing the Agent Marker)

• に: everyday, personal agents, especially in speech—works for both direct and adversative passives.
  先生に褒められた。 (sensei ni homerareta.) I was praised by the teacher.

• によって: formal/objective sources, institutions, methods, causes; rarely used for adversative feelings.
  研究は政府によって支援された。 (kenkyū wa seifu ni yotte shien sareta.) The research was supported by the government.

A good rule: if it’s a headline/report tone, によって often fits; if it’s personal impact, に is natural.

Passive vs. Potential—Same Form, Different Meaning

For ichidan verbs (like 見る), the passive and potential both look like 見られる. Context disambiguates:

• 写真は見られる。 (shashin wa mirareru.)
  can be seen (potential) or is seen (by people) (passive).
  Add cues:

• Potential: 私は写真が見られる。 (watashi wa shashin ga mirareru.) I can see the photo.

• Passive: 写真は多くの人に見られる。 (shashin wa ōku no hito ni mirareru.) The photo is seen by many people.

Godan verbs have distinct potential (書ける) vs passive (書かれる), so ambiguity is mainly an ichidan issue.

Honorific Passive (尊敬の受身)

The 〜(r)areru form also serves as an honorific in respectful speech, elevating the subject who performs the action.

• 社長は今、こちらに向かわれています。 (shachō wa ima, kochira ni mukawarete imasu.) The president is on the way (honorific).

• 先生がお書きになられた本です。 (sensei ga o-kaki ni narareta hon desu.) This is the book the teacher wrote (honorific).

In very careful speech, many prefer the analytic honorific お/ご〜になる:

• 先生が本をお書きになりました。 (sensei ga hon o o-kaki ni narimashita.) The teacher wrote a book.

Note: using both お/ご〜になる and 〜られる together can sound like double honorific, which some styles avoid; others accept in very polite registers.

Passive Progressives and States: 〜られている

〜ている with passives marks ongoing situations or resultant states:

• この本は広く読まれています。 (kono hon wa hiroku yomarete imasu.) This book is widely read (ongoing state).

• ルールは十分に理解されている。 (rūru wa jūbun ni rikai sarete iru.) The rules are (already) understood.

Causative-Passive: “Be made/forced to do” (させられる)

Combine causative 〜(s)aseru with passive 〜(r)areru to say someone was made or made to do something (often unwillingly).

• 上司に残業させられた。 (jōshi ni zangyō saserareta.) I was made to work overtime by my boss.

• 子どものころ、野菜を食べさせられた。 (kodomo no koro, yasai o tabesaserareta.) I was made to eat vegetables as a kid.

Colloquial contractions exist (〜さされる／〜される), but 〜させられる is the safe standard.

Typical Transformations (Active → Passive → Adversative)

• Active: 犬が私の靴を噛んだ。 (inu ga watashi no kutsu o kanda.) A dog bit my shoe.
  Direct passive (object → subject):
  私の靴が犬に噛まれた。 (watashi no kutsu ga inu ni kamareta.) My shoe was bitten by a dog.
  Adversative (affected person as subject):
  私は犬に靴を噛まれた。 (watashi wa inu ni kutsu o kamareta.) A dog bit my shoe (on me—what a hassle!).

• Active: 彼が私のパソコンを壊した。 (kare ga watashi no pasokon o kowashita.) He broke my PC.
  Adversative: 私は彼にパソコンを壊された。 (watashi wa kare ni pasokon o kowasareta.) He broke my PC on me (I suffered).

Passive with Benefactives and “On Me” Nuance

When the act benefits you, you’ll prefer 〜てくれる. When it harms/inconveniences you, the adversative passive says that succinctly.

• Benefit: 彼が手伝ってくれた。 (kare ga tetsudatte kureta.) He helped me (kindly).

• Harm: 彼に邪魔された。 (kare ni jamasareta.) He got in my way / He bothered me.

The passive centers your experience—positive passives exist but are rarer; for positive effects, Japanese often uses active with くれる.

When to Prefer Passive vs. Active

Choose passive when you want to…

• Focus on the patient or the outcome (documents, news):
  申請は審査されます。 (shinsei wa shinsa saremasu.) Applications are reviewed.

• Downplay/omit responsibility (impersonal tone):
  遅延が発生しました。 (chien ga hassei shimashita.) A delay occurred.

• Express personal impact (adversative):
  雨に降られて遅れました。 (ame ni furarete okuremashita.) I got rained on and arrived late.

Use active when you want to be clear about the doer or when praising/blaming concretely.

Common Pitfalls (and quick fixes)

• Overusing によって for people in casual talk. Prefer に:
  ✗ 先生によって褒められた。 → ✓ 先生に褒められた。 (sensei ni homerareta.) I was praised by the teacher.

• Forgetting the adversative option. If your inconvenience matters, make you the subject:
  ✗ 友達が私の本を失くした。
  ✓ 私は友達に本を失くされた。 (watashi wa tomodachi ni hon o nakusareta.) My friend lost my book (to my detriment).

• Confusing potential vs. passive on ichidan verbs. Add context (が for ability, に/によって for passive).

• Double honorific stacking. In most business writing, prefer お/ご〜になる or a single 〜られる—avoid piling both unless your house style requires it.

Mini Practice: Read the Stance

• 財布を盗まれた。 (saifu o nusumareta.) My wallet was stolen (on me). → adversative

• この薬は多くの病院で使われています。 (kono kusuri wa ōku no byōin de tsukawarete imasu.) This medicine is used in many hospitals. → neutral/report

• 社長は明日ご出席になられます。 (shachō wa ashita go-shusseki ni nararemasu.) The president will attend (honorific). → honorific passive flavor

• 雨に降られて、試合は中止になった。 (ame ni furarete, shiai wa chūshi ni natta.) We got rained on, and the game was canceled. → adversative + result

Putting It All Together: Natural Sentences

• その計画は専門家によって評価された。 (sono keikaku wa senmonka ni yotte hyōka sareta.) The plan was evaluated by experts.

• 私は隣の工事に朝早くから起こされた。 (watashi wa tonari no kōji ni asa hayaku kara okosareta.) I was woken early by the construction next door.

• 申請内容は慎重に審査されています。 (shinsei naiyō wa shinchō ni shinsa sarete imasu.) The application contents are being carefully reviewed.

• 上司に説明をやり直させられた。 (jōshi ni setsumei o yarinaosaserareta.) I was made to redo the explanation by my boss.

• この作品は世界中で読まれている。 (kono sakuhin wa sekaijū de yomarete iru.) This work is read all over the world.

• 先生に論文を褒められて嬉しかった。 (sensei ni ronbun o homerarete ureshikatta.) I was happy to be praised on my paper by the professor.

• 道で雨に降られて、服がびしょ濡れになった。 (michi de ame ni furarete, fuku ga bisho nure ni natta.) I got rained on in the street and my clothes got soaked.

Quick Checklist

• Form: ichidan → 〜られる; godan → a-row + れる; する/来る → される/来られる.

• Meanings: direct passive (neutral), adversative (affected), honorific passive (respect).

• Agents: に (speech, people), によって (formal/source/method).

• Adversative lets intransitives passivize to show your trouble: 雨に降られた.

• Progressive/passive: 〜られている for current state.

• Decisions: passive for patient focus, impersonal tone, or your involvement; active for clear responsibility.

• Beware ichidan potential vs. passive ambiguity—use particles and context.

• For coercion, use causative-passive 〜させられる.

Negation in Japanese

Negation in Japanese is compact on the surface—often just 〜ない or 〜ません—but it carries rich nuance. You’ll use different negative shapes for verbs, adjectives, and nouns, combine them with polarity-sensitive adverbs, and choose between ないで and なくて depending on meaning. This guide maps the forms you’ll actually use and how they feel to native ears, with plenty of examples.

Core Verb Negation (Non-past and Past)

Japanese verb negation has two registers:

• Plain: 〜ない (non-past negative), 〜なかった (past negative)

• Polite: 〜ません (non-past negative), 〜ませんでした (past negative)

Ichidan (る) verbs: stem + ない／なかった
Godan (う) verbs: final vowel shifts to a + ない／なかった
Irregular: する → しない／しません, 来る → 来ない（こない）／来ません

• 行きません。 (ikimasen.) I don’t/won’t go.

• 行かない。 (ikanai.) I don’t/won’t go.

• 食べませんでした。 (tabemasen deshita.) I didn’t eat.

• 食べなかった。 (tabenakatta.) I didn’t eat.

• 来ないと思います。 (konai to omoimasu.) I think (they) won’t come.

• 宿題をしない。 (shukudai o shinai.) I don’t do homework.

Negating Adjectives (i-adjectives and na-adjectives)

i-adjectives: replace 〜い with 〜くない (non-past), 〜くなかった (past)

• 高くないです。 (takaku nai desu.) It’s not expensive.

• 寒くなかったです。 (samuku nakatta desu.) It wasn’t cold.

• よくない考えです。 (yoku nai kangae desu.) It’s not a good idea.

na-adjectives / nouns: add negative copula じゃない／ではない; polite ではありません

• 静かじゃない。 (shizuka ja nai.) It isn’t quiet.

• 学生ではありません。 (gakusei de wa arimasen.) [He/She] is not a student.

• 有名じゃなかったです。 (yūmei ja nakatta desu.) It wasn’t famous.

Negative Copula and Preference for Forms

じゃない is common in speech; ではない／ではありません is formal. With i-adjectives, the polite negative is 〜くないです／〜くありません; the 〜くありません variant is more formal.

• この店はよくないです。 (kono mise wa yoku nai desu.) This shop isn’t good.

• 安全ではありません。 (anzen de wa arimasen.) It isn’t safe.

Negative Existence: ない vs いない

Use ない for inanimate things/events; いない for animate beings. Polite: ありません／いません.

• お金がない。 (okane ga nai.) I have no money.

• 誰もいません。 (dare mo imasen.) No one is here.

• 会議はありません。 (kaigi wa arimasen.) There isn’t a meeting.

“Haven’t Done Yet” and Resultative Negation: 〜ていない

〜ていない means “not doing” or “have not done (yet),” depending on context.

• まだ食べていません。 (mada tabete imasen.) I haven’t eaten yet.

• 何も決めていない。 (nani mo kimete inai.) I haven’t decided anything.

• 分かっていない人が多い。 (wakatte inai hito ga ōi.) Many people don’t get it (yet).

Polarity-Sensitive Adverbs (NPIs): あまり・全然・別に・なかなか・めったに

These adverbs pair naturally with negatives (or behave differently when they don’t).

• あまり〜ない “not very/much”
  あまり好きじゃない。 (amari suki ja nai.) I don’t like it much.

• 全然〜ない “not at all” (casual positive exists: 全然大丈夫 “totally fine”)
  全然時間がない。 (zenzen jikan ga nai.) I have no time at all.

• 別に〜ない “not particularly”
  別に問題はない。 (betsu ni mondai wa nai.) There’s nothing in particular wrong.

• なかなか〜ない “not easily/readily”
  なかなか眠れない。 (nakanaka nemurenai.) I can’t fall asleep easily.

• めったに〜ない “rarely”
  めったに外食しない。 (metta ni gaishoku shinai.) I rarely eat out.

もう vs まだ with Negation

• もう〜ない “no longer / not anymore”
  もう吸いません。 (mō suimasen.) I don’t smoke anymore.

• まだ〜ない “not yet”
  まだ始まっていない。 (mada hajimatte inai.) It hasn’t started yet.

Interrogatives + も with Negation: “No one / Nothing / Nowhere”

Combine X + も with a negative predicate to mean none/no.

• 誰も来ない。 (dare mo konai.) No one comes.

• 何も分かりません。 (nani mo wakarimasen.) I don’t understand anything.

• どこも開いていない。 (doko mo aite inai.) Nowhere is open.

• いつも来ない is ambiguous (often “never comes” in context), while いつでも pairs with positives (“always/whenever”).

は vs が in Negative Sentences

In negatives, が often marks what doesn’t exist/occur, while は adds contrast or topic.

• お金がない。 (okane ga nai.) There’s no money. (simple fact)

• お金はない。 (okane wa nai.) Money, (I) don’t have. (contrast: maybe I have other things)

• 肉は食べない。 (niku wa tabenai.) As for meat, I don’t eat (it). (maybe fish is fine)

Prohibitions and “Must Not”: 〜てはいけない・だめだ・ならない

Use these when forbidding or stating rules.

• ここで吸ってはいけません。 (koko de sutte wa ikemasen.) You must not smoke here.

• 入っちゃだめ。 (haitcha dame.) Don’t go in. (casual)

• 遅れてはならない。 (okurete wa naranai.) You must not be late. (formal)

Blunt dictionary + な is a direct “don’t”:

• 触るな。 (sawaru na.) Don’t touch.

Polite “please don’t …”: 〜ないでください

• ここで写真を撮らないでください。 (koko de shashin o toranaide kudasai.) Please don’t take photos here.

“Without Doing” vs “And Not”: 〜ないで vs 〜なくて

〜ないで = without doing (omission / alternative).
〜なくて = and not / because not (reason or linking).

• 朝ごはんを食べないで出かけた。 (asagohan o tabenaide dekaketa.) I went out without eating breakfast.

• お金がなくて買えなかった。 (okane ga nakute kaenakatta.) I couldn’t buy it because I had no money.

• Request + 〜ないでください:
  話さないでください。 (hanasanaide kudasai.) Please don’t speak.

Restrictive Negation: しか〜ない vs だけ

しか〜ない = only (and nothing else), inherently negative; だけ = only (neutral, no required negative).

• 千円しかない。 (sen’en shika nai.) I have only 1,000 yen.

• 千円だけあります。 (sen’en dake arimasu.) I have 1,000 yen (only).

Softened / Litotic Negatives: 〜ないことはない・〜なくはない・〜ないわけではない

These mean “not (that) … not,” i.e., it’s not impossible / not entirely untrue—a hedged yes.

• 食べられないことはない。 (taberarenai koto wa nai.) It’s not that I can’t eat it (I could).

• 行かなくはない。 (ikanaku wa nai.) It’s not that I won’t go (I might).

• 好きじゃないわけではない。 (suki ja nai wake de wa nai.) It’s not that I dislike it (I kind of like it).

Nuance ranges from reluctant acceptance to partial agreement.

“Not Necessarily / Not Always”: 〜とは限らない・〜わけではない

Use these to limit a generalization.

• 高いほど良いとは限らない。 (takai hodo yoi to wa kagiranai.) More expensive isn’t necessarily better.

• 日本人が皆、寿司が好きなわけではない。 (Nihonjin ga mina, sushi ga suki na wake de wa nai.) Not all Japanese people like sushi.

Negative Questions and Invitations

Negative questions can be genuine or inviting.

• 行きませんか。 (ikimasen ka.) Won’t you go? (invitation)

• 行かないの？ (ikanai no?) Aren’t you going? (checking / casual)

• 行かない？ (ikanai?) Wanna go (or not going)? (friendly invite)

Desire, Intention, and Obligation in the Negative

• 〜たくない “don’t want to”
  帰りたくない。 (kaeritakunai.) I don’t want to go home.

• 〜ないつもり “intend not to”
  参加しないつもりです。 (sanka shinai tsumori desu.) I intend not to participate.

• 〜なければならない／いけない “must” (neg-base but positive meaning). Negative must-not is above.
  早く起きなければならない。 (hayaku okinakereba naranai.) I have to get up early.

Common Lexical Contrasts: 知らない vs 分からない

• 知らない = don’t know (be unaware)
  彼の住所を知らない。 (kare no jūsho o shiranai.) I don’t know his address.

• 分からない = don’t understand / can’t figure out
  この意味が分からない。 (kono imi ga wakaranai.) I don’t understand this meaning.

Negative Relative Clauses and Prenominal Negation

Negatives can directly modify nouns.

• 時間がない人 (jikan ga nai hito) a person who doesn’t have time

• 必要じゃない書類 (hitsuyō ja nai shorui) documents that aren’t necessary

• 来なかった理由 (konakatta riyū) the reason (someone) didn’t come

Stylistic and Formal Negatives

• 〜ぬ／〜ん classical/literary (or dialectal/casual):
  知らぬ。 (shiranu.) I do not know. / 分からん。 (wakaran.) I don’t get it.

• 〜まい “will not / shall not” (bookish volitional negative):
  遅るまい。 (okuru mai.) I shall not be late.

Use these with care; they add a deliberate stylistic tone.

Pitfalls and Quick Fixes

• Confusing ないで vs なくて: Use ないで for “without doing,” なくて for “and not/because not.”

• Overusing は: In plain negation, が often sounds more neutral (X ga nai). Use は to contrast.

• 全然 with positives: Standard is negative (全然〜ない). Positive 全然大丈夫 is casual; avoid in formal writing.

• Potential vs Passive for ichidan: 見られない = can’t see / is not seen (ambiguous). Add context (が for ability, に/によって for passive).

• Prohibitions: Prefer 〜ないでください／〜てはいけません for polite settings; 辞書形＋な is blunt.

Practice Examples in Context

• 今日は行かない。 (kyō wa ikanai.) I’m not going today.

• この映画は面白くないです。 (kono eiga wa omoshiroku nai desu.) This movie isn’t interesting.

• 彼は忙しくない。 (kare wa isogashiku nai.) He isn’t busy.

• 誰も来ませんでした。 (dare mo kimasen deshita.) No one came.

• まだ決めていません。 (mada kimete imasen.) I haven’t decided yet.

• ここで食べてはいけません。 (koko de tabete wa ikemasen.) You must not eat here.

• 心配する必要はない。 (shinpai suru hitsuyō wa nai.) There’s no need to worry.

• 雨じゃないから、出かけよう。 (ame ja nai kara, dekakeyō.) Since it isn’t raining, let’s go out.

• 時間がなくて、参加できなかった。 (jikan ga nakute, sanka dekinakatta.) I didn’t have time, so I couldn’t participate.

• それは正しいとは限らない。 (sore wa tadashii to wa kagiranai.) That isn’t necessarily correct.

• 仕事は嫌いじゃないけど、今はしたくない。 (shigoto wa kirai ja nai kedo, ima wa shitakunai.) I don’t dislike work, but I don’t want to do it now.

• 日本語が全然話せないわけではない。 (Nihongo ga zenzen hanasenai wake de wa nai.) It’s not that I can’t speak Japanese at all (I can, to some extent).

Modal Verbs in Japanese

English has modal verbs (can, must, should). Japanese expresses modality—ability, permission, obligation, intention, probability—through auxiliary endings (助動詞), set constructions, and modal/evidential expressions. Broadly:

• Dynamic (ability/possibility)

• Deontic (permission/obligation)

• Volitional (will/intent/desire)

• Epistemic (likelihood/inference)

Below you’ll find the core patterns, with natural examples and nuance notes.

Ability & Possibility (Dynamic Modality)

Potential form (〜れる／〜られる)

Expresses can / be able to. Godan verbs change to e-row + る (書く→書ける), ichidan add られる (食べる→食べられる). Irregular: する→できる, 来る→来られる.

• 私は日本語が話せます。 (watashi wa Nihongo ga hanasemasu.) I can speak Japanese.

• この川は泳げません。 (kono kawa wa oyogemasen.) One cannot swim in this river.

• 今夜は参加できない。 (kon’ya wa sanka dekinai.) I can’t participate tonight.

Note (ichidan ambiguity): 見られる can mean can see or is seen (passive); context/particles disambiguate.

ことができる (periphrastic “can”)

Slightly more formal/neutral than the potential inflection.

• ここで支払いができます。 (koko de shiharai ga dekimasu.) You can pay here.

• 彼は長時間、集中することができる。 (kare wa chōjikan, shūchū suru koto ga dekiru.) He can concentrate for long periods.

〜得る／〜うる (“be possible to ~” literary/objective)

Often in writing; あり得る／ありうる “possible.”

• 予想外の事態は起こり得る。 (yosōgai no jitai wa okori uru.) Unexpected situations can occur.

• その解釈もあり得ます。 (sono kaishaku mo ari emasu.) That interpretation is also possible.

〜かねる (polite inability/refusal)

Businesslike “cannot (accept/do)” for circumstance or policy.

• そのご要望にはお応えしかねます。 (sono go-yōbō ni wa o-otae shi kanemasu.) We are unable to meet that request.

Permission & Prohibition (Deontic Modality)

〜てもいい／〜てよい／〜て構わない (may)

• ここで写真を撮ってもいいですか。 (koko de shashin o totte mo ii desu ka.) May I take photos here?

• 少し遅れても構いません。 (sukoshi okurete mo kamaimasen.) It’s okay to be a little late.

Ability vs permission: 飲めますか asks “Can you (are you able to) drink?”; 飲んでもいいですか asks permission.

〜てはいけない／〜てはならない／〜てはだめ (must not)

• ここで喫煙してはいけません。 (koko de kitsuen shite wa ikemasen.) You must not smoke here.

• 個人情報を外部に出してはならない。 (kojin jōhō o gaibu ni dashite wa naranai.) Personal data must not be disclosed.

• 入っちゃだめ。 (haitcha dame.) Don’t go in. (casual)

辞書形＋な (blunt “don’t”)

• 触るな。 (sawaru na.) Don’t touch.

• 騒ぐな。 (sawagu na.) Don’t make noise.

Obligation, Necessity, and “Should”

〜なければならない／〜なくてはならない (have to/must)

• 明日までに提出しなければならない。 (ashita made ni teishutsu shinakereba naranai.) I must submit by tomorrow.

• 安全確認をしなくてはなりません。 (anzen kakunin o shinakute wa narimasen.) We have to do a safety check.

Colloquial shortenings: 〜なきゃ／〜なくちゃ／〜ないと

• もう帰らないと。 (mō kaeranai to.) I gotta head back.

〜べきだ (should) / 〜べきではない (shouldn’t)

• 約束は守るべきだ。 (yakusoku wa mamoru beki da.) One should keep promises.

• 個人攻撃はすべきではない。 (kojin kōgeki wa subeki de wa nai.) We shouldn’t engage in personal attacks.

規則として: 〜ことになっている (it is the rule that…)

• 社内では名札を着用することになっている。 (shanai de wa nafuda o chakuyō suru koto ni natte iru.) We are required to wear name tags in the office.

Intention, Decision, and Volition

Volitional 〜う／〜よう (let’s / I will)

• 行こう。 (ikō.) Let’s go / I’ll go.

• 手伝いましょうか。 (tetsudai mashō ka.) Shall I help?

つもりだ (intend to) / 予定だ (scheduled to)

• 来年、引っ越すつもりです。 (rainen, hikkosu tsumori desu.) I intend to move next year.

• 会議は三時からの予定です。 (kaigi wa san-ji kara no yotei desu.) The meeting is scheduled from three.

ことにする／ことになる (decide / be decided)

• 毎朝走ることにした。 (mai-asa hashiru koto ni shita.) I’ve decided to run every morning.

• 四月から大阪に転勤することになった。 (shigatsu kara Ōsaka ni tenkin suru koto ni natta.) It has been decided that I’ll transfer to Osaka in April.

Negative volition 〜まい (bookish “will not”)

• 二度と遅れまい。 (nidoto okuremai.) I will not be late again.

Desire and Requests (Volitional/Deontic Blend)

〜たい (want to) / 〜たくない (don’t want to)

• もう一度見たいです。 (mō ichido mitai desu.) I want to see it once more.

• 今日は外出したくない。 (kyō wa gaishutsu shitakunai.) I don’t want to go out today.

〜てほしい (want someone to do)

• 手伝ってほしい。 (tetsudatte hoshii.) I want you to help.

• 静かにしてほしいです。 (shizuka ni shite hoshii desu.) I’d like you to be quiet.

Polite requests

• 説明してください。 (setsumei shite kudasai.) Please explain.

• 確認していただけますか。 (kakunin shite itadakemasu ka.) Could you please check?

Probability, Inference, and Expectation (Epistemic Modality)

だろう／でしょう (probably)

• 明日は寒いでしょう。 (ashita wa samui deshō.) It will probably be cold tomorrow.

• 彼は来るだろう。 (kare wa kuru darō.) He’ll likely come.

かもしれない (might, may)

• 雨が降るかもしれない。 (ame ga furu kamoshirenai.) It might rain.

はずだ／はずがない (expected to / cannot be)

• 彼は知っているはずだ。 (kare wa shitte iru hazu da.) He should know (I expect he does).

• そんなはずがない。 (sonna hazu ga nai.) That can’t be true.

に違いない／に相違ない (certainly must be—strong)

• 彼が犯人に違いない。 (kare ga hannin ni chigai nai.) He must be the culprit.

らしい (I hear / it seems—hearsay/inference)

• 彼は海外に引っ越したらしい。 (kare wa kaigai ni hikkoshita rashii.) I hear he moved abroad.

ようだ／みたいだ (seems/looks like—appearance/simile)

• この辺は静かなようだ。 (kono hen wa shizuka na yō da.) It seems quiet around here.

• 雨が降りそうだ (appearance) vs 雨が降るそうだ (hearsay)

• 雨が降りそうです。 (ame ga furi-sō desu.) It looks like it’s going to rain.

• 雨が降るそうです。 (ame ga furu sō desu.) They say it will rain.

Near-Future & Inevitability Shades

Even without a future tense, Japanese marks prospect:

• 結果がすぐ出るはずだ。 (kekka ga sugu deru hazu da.) The results should come out soon.

• 値上げは避けられそうにない。 (neage wa sakerare sō ni nai.) A price hike seems unavoidable.

“Likelihood” nouns:

• 成功の可能性が高い。 (seikō no kanōsei ga takai.) There’s a high possibility of success.

• 延期の見込みです。 (enki no mikomi desu.) Postponement is expected.

Counterfactual / Retrospective Modality (“should have, was supposed to”)

• 行くはずだったが、行けなかった。 (iku hazu datta ga, ikenakatta.) I was supposed to go, but couldn’t.

• もっと早く連絡すべきだった。 (motto hayaku renraku subeki datta.) I should have contacted you sooner.

• 参加するつもりだった。 (sanka suru tsumori datta.) I intended to participate.

• 来るはずがなかった。 (kuru hazu ga nakatta.) There was no way (he) would come.

Modality via Negation & Refusal

• 〜かねる (see above) polite refusal/inability.

• 〜わけにはいかない “cannot (morally/practically)”

  • 今日は休むわけにはいかない。 (kyō wa yasumu wake ni wa ikanai.) I can’t afford to take the day off today.

• 〜にくい／〜がたい “hard to” (difficulty)

  • 信じがたい話だ。 (shinji-gatai hanashi da.) It’s a story that’s hard to believe.

Particle Choices that Shape Modality

• が vs は around ability:

  • 日本語が話せます。 (Nihongo ga hanasemasu.) I can speak Japanese (ability fact).

  • 日本語は話せます。 (Nihongo wa hanasemasu.) As for Japanese, I can speak it (contrastive—maybe others I can’t).

• か makes uncertainty:

  • 間に合うかもしれない。 (mania’u ka mo shirenai.) We might make it in time.

Register and Politeness: Choosing the Right Wrapper

• Plain inference: だろう／かもしれない

• Polite: でしょう／かもしれません

• Business-polite commitments: いたします／させていただきます

  • 後ほどご連絡いたします。 (nochihodo go-renraku itashimasu.) We will contact you later.

• Softening with adverbs: たぶん／おそらく／きっと tune certainty.

Mini Contrast Sets (Same Content, Different Modality)

• 許可 (permission)
  ここで食べてもいいですか。 (koko de tabete mo ii desu ka.) May I eat here?
  ここで食べてはいけません。 (koko de tabete wa ikemasen.) You must not eat here.

• 義務 (obligation)
  明日までに出さなければならない。 (ashita made ni dasanakereba naranai.) I have to submit it by tomorrow.
  明日までに出すべきだ。 (ashita made ni dasu beki da.) I should submit it by tomorrow. (advice/norm)

• 意思 (will) vs 提案 (let’s)
  あとで電話しよう。 (ato de denwa shiyō.) I’ll call later / Let’s call later.
  あとで電話しましょうか。 (ato de denwa shimashō ka.) Shall I call later?

• 推量 (epistemic)
  彼は来るだろう。 (kare wa kuru darō.) He’ll likely come.
  彼は来ないかもしれない。 (kare wa konai kamoshirenai.) He might not come.

Practice Sentences (Natural Usage)

• 今日は雨になりそうだ。 (kyō wa ame ni nari sō da.) It looks like rain today.

• 結果は午後に出るはずです。 (kekka wa gogo ni deru hazu desu.) The results should come out this afternoon.

• ここで待ってもいいですよ。 (koko de matte mo ii desu yo.) You may wait here.

• このファイルは開けません。 (kono fairu wa akemasen.) I can’t open this file.

• 説明すべきではない。 (setsumei subeki de wa nai.) It shouldn’t be explained (now).

• この方法ならできるかもしれない。 (kono hōhō nara dekiru kamoshirenai.) With this method, it might be possible.

• 来週から通勤方法を変えるつもりだ。 (raishū kara tsūkin hōhō o kaeru tsumori da.) I intend to change my commuting method from next week.

• 重要書類は外部に渡してはならない。 (jūyō shorui wa gaibu ni watashite wa naranai.) Important documents must not be handed outside.

Quick Checklist for Japanese Modality

• Ability: potential 〜れる／〜られる, できる, 〜得る／〜うる

• Permission: 〜てもいい／〜てよい／〜て構わない； Prohibition: 〜てはいけない／ならない／だめ、辞書形＋な

• Obligation: 〜なければ／なくては＋ならない／いけない、〜べきだ、規則＝〜ことになっている

• Intention/Decision: volitional 〜う／〜よう、つもり、予定、ことにする／なる、〜まい

• Desire: 〜たい、〜てほしい

• Probability/Inference: でしょう／だろう、かもしれない、はずだ／はずがない、に違いない、らしい、ようだ／みたいだ、〜そうだ (appearance/hearsay)

• Register: pick plain vs polite; soften with adverbs; be careful with ability vs permission.

Conjunctions in Japanese